Passenger Safety Briefing

References: 14 CFR 91.21, 14 CFR 91.107, 14 CFR 91.319, 14 CFR 91.327, 14 CFR 91.519

The PIC is required to:

• Brief passengers on how to fasten and unfasten their safety belts.
• Notify passengers to fasten their safety belts before taxi, takeoff, and landing.
• For experimental and light-sport aircraft, notify each passenger of the aircraft’s special nature.
• For large and turbine-powered airplanes, comply with 14 CFR 91.519 (passenger briefing).

Elements of a passenger “SAFETY” briefing:

• Seatbelts: How to fasten and unfasten; Required during taxi, takeoff, and landing
• Air: How to operate the environmental controls; The location of vents and airsickness bags; Smoking is prohibited
• Fire Extinguisher: Its location, how to unlatch it from its mount, and how to use it
• Exits, Emergencies, and Equipment: The location and operation of doors and emergency exits; Emergency procedures; The location and use of emergency and survival equipment
• Traffic and Talking: The importance of visual scanning; Sterile cockpit requirements
• Your Questions?: Allow passengers to ask questions

Other items to consider:

• If under IFR, the allowed use of portable electronic devices
• If flying over water, ditching procedures
• PIC authority

Related: Federal Aviation Regulations: Requirements for the Use of Safety Belts

Checklist Usage

Reference: SAFO 17006

Checklists act as a systematic guide, ensuring that all procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and nothing is omitted. Furthermore, they standardize flight operations, thereby minimizing the chances of human error.

Related: Pilot Training and Testing Standards: Applicant’s Use of Checklists

Pilot Flying and Pilot Monitoring

Many checklists differentiate the performance of checklist items by using the terms “pilot flying” (PF) and “pilot monitoring/pilot not flying” (PM/PNF) to avoid confusion. The PF refers to the pilot manipulating the controls, regardless of which seat he or she occupies.

Checklist Accomplishment Methods

The proper use of a checklist depends on the task being conducted. In some situations, using the checklist would be unsafe or impractical, especially in a single-pilot operation. In this case, reviewing the checklist after the elements have been accomplished would be appropriate.

Challenge-And-Response (Do-List): A typical checklist has two columns. The left column shows the switch or control that needs to be moved or verified (the challenge), and the right column shows the action that needs to be taken with the switch or control (the response). Each challenge is read and is followed by the necessary task or check being accomplished. A response is made only after verifying the proper configuration or condition exists.

Flow (Do-Verify): A mental “flow” check can be used in high workload situations. The flow is a systematic scan of the instrument panel. It shows the pilot what items to consider, not what to do. After completing the flow, the checklist is read to verify that all items have been completed.

Use of Commercially or Personally Developed Checklists

Note: Pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 121 or 135 are prohibited from using unapproved checklists.

Pilots may purchase or adapt checklists to streamline operations and incorporate personal preferences. Any changes must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure they align with the manufacturer’s recommendations and aircraft limitations.

Adapting emergency checklists is generally not recommended due to the critical nature of these procedures. Improperly adapted checklists can lead to missed steps, procedural errors, and reduced safety margins during critical situations.

Aeronautical Chart Requirements

Reference: FAA Aeronautical FAQs Webpage

VFR: It is not FAA policy to violate 14 CFR Part 91 pilots for having outdated charts in the aircraft. However, if an out-of-date chart, no chart, or an out-of-date database contributes to an accident, then that information could be used in any enforcement action.

IFR: Published instrument procedures and routes incorporated by reference into 14 CFR Parts 95 Part 97 are “law.” They are effective only during the dates specified on the chart.

Note: Additional regulations apply to large and turbojet-powered aircraft operated under 14 CFR Parts 121 and 135.

Global Positioning System

References: 14 CFR 43.3, AIM 1-1-17, AIM 1-1-18, AIM 1-2-3, AC 90-100

The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of a network of satellites managed by the U.S. Air Force. The U.S. is committed to maintaining the availability of at least 24 operational GPS satellites. To ensure this, 30 or more satellites travel in semi-synchronous (12-hour) orbits around the Earth.

GPS Limitations for VFR Operations

• VFR pilots should avoid relying solely on one navigation system. GPS should be supplemented by pilotage and dead reckoning.
• VFR-only panel-mount units must be placarded or display an annunciation prohibiting use under IFR.

GPS Limitations for IFR Operations

• Hand-held GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a primary instrument flight reference.
• Not all panel-mount units are IFR-approved, and not all IFR-approved receivers are installed according to IFR operational requirements.
• Pilots must comply with the GPS limitations and operate within the approval criteria (en route, terminal, or approach) listed in the AFM/POH.
• Aircraft navigating by an IFR-approved GPS are considered to be Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) aircraft and have specific equipment suffixes.

Database Requirements

• At system initialization, pilots must confirm the navigation database is current and verify the aircraft’s present position.
• Updates are typically issued every 28 days. Under 14 CFR 43.3, they are not considered maintenance and may be performed by pilots.
• If the chart cycle changes during a flight, pilots should check if an applicable chart amendment exists. If an amended chart is published for the procedure, the database must not be used to conduct the operation.

Preflight Requirements

Non-GPS/WAAS Receivers: RAIM availability must be confirmed for the intended route of flight.

RAIM Unavailable: In situations where RAIM is predicted to be unavailable, the flight must rely on other approved navigation equipment, reroute to where RAIM is available, delay departure, or cancel the flight.

WAAS Unavailable: Outside the WAAS coverage or if the WAAS fails, GPS/WAAS equipment reverts to GPS-only operation and satisfies the requirements for basic GPS equipment. Operators must verify GPS RAIM availability.

Alternate Airport Planning Requirements

Without RAIM: Any required alternate airport must have an available instrument approach procedure that does not require the use of GPS.

With RAIM and FDE (no WAAS): Pilots may plan to use a GPS-based IAP at either the destination or the alternate airport, but not at both locations. A preflight RAIM prediction must confirm availability at the airport where the RNAV (GPS) approach will be flown.

With RAIM, pilots may plan for alternate airport minimums using:

• LNAV or circling MDA;
• LNAV/VNAV DA if using approved Barometric Vertical Navigation (baro-VNAV) equipment; or
• RNP 0.3 DA if they are specifically authorized and are using approved baro-VNAV equipment.

With WAAS: Pilots may plan to use any instrument approach procedure authorized for use with their WAAS avionics at the destination and the required alternate with the following restrictions.

• When using WAAS at an alternate airport, flight planning must be based on one of the following:
  • The RNAV (GPS) LNAV minimums or circling minimums.
  • The minimums on a GPS approach procedure.
  • A conventional approach procedure with “or GPS” in the title.
• Pilots must use 14 CFR Part 91 guidance for non-precision approach procedures (ceiling 800′ and visibility 2 SM) to determine the IFR alternate airport weather minimums.
• Upon arrival at an alternate, the approach can be completed using the displayed level of service (e.g., LNAV/VNAV or LPV).

Related: Navigation and Flight Planning: Alternate Airport Planning

Arrival, Departure, and Approach Requirements

• The GPS must be set to terminal (±1 NM) course deviation indicator (CDI) sensitivity to fly published departure procedures.
• Localizer-based approach procedures are not authorized to fly using GPS.
• Authorization for GPS-based instrument approaches and departures is limited to U.S. airspace. Operations outside the U.S. must be authorized by the appropriate sovereign authority.

Flight Deck Organization

A place for everything and everything in its place.

Benjamin Franklin

Before starting the engine, items should be arranged to be secure and accessible. Essential equipment should be within easy reach.

These seemingly small actions can reduce workload and enhance safety. Since everyone has a different way of organizing themselves, the optimal arrangement comes through experimentation.

Best Practices for Flight Deck Organization

• Use a flight bag to secure loose items that won’t be needed in flight.
• Do not block the flight controls with mounted accessories, cords, or lap organizers (kneeboards).
• Do not mount electronics or other devices to the windshield or windows. The pilot must be able to see in all directions.

Automation Management

Effective automation management allows the pilot to assess, detect, and correct errors; thus, it helps prevent accidents.

Active Automation Management

Automation should be managed actively rather than passively (“set and forget”). Active automation management enhances situational awareness and helps to identify automation failures.

To actively manage the automation, pilots must:

• Cross-reference the data provided by various systems.
• Monitor the flight progress (e.g., waypoints and fuel burn).
• Know how the technology normally performs and its failure modes.
• Be ready to take action if the system does not perform as expected.

Autopilot Mode Verifications

Managing the autopilot means knowing which modes are engaged and which are armed to engage.

Autopilot management errors can be reduced by:

• Verifying each button press is recognized by the system.
• Making callouts after every mode change and when arming the system.

Caution: Anytime the autopilot is disconnected, the pilot should have a firm grip on the controls to counter any unexpected trim forces.

Automation Management Errors

Humans are not well suited for monitoring automated systems. Extended periods of performing trivial tasks often lead to daydreaming or complacency.

Monitoring errors can be reduced by:

• Guarding against fixation.
• Making consistent verifications and callouts.
• Scanning the instruments in the same way as when hand flying.

Related: Risk Management: Automation Bias

Aeronautical Decision-Making

Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

ADM = What pilots intend to do based on the information they have.

The Decision-Making Process

Note: The decision-making process parallels the risk management process (3P’s), as both involve perceiving a problem, processing options, and performing actions while monitoring outcomes.

1. Define the Problem: A problem is perceived by the senses and recognized through insight and experience. An objective analysis of all available information is used to determine the exact nature and severity of the problem.

2. Choose a Course of Action: The pilot determines the actions that may be taken to resolve the situation in the time available. The expected outcome of each action should be considered, and the risks assessed before the pilot decides on a response.

3. Implement the Decision and Evaluate the Outcome: After a decision is reached and a course of action is implemented, the pilot continues to evaluate the outcome of the decision to ensure that it produces the desired result.

Single-Pilot Resource Management

Single-pilot resource management (SRM) is the art and science of managing all the resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (before and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.

SRM includes the concepts of:

• Aeronautical decision-making (ADM)
• Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) awareness
• Situational awareness
• Flight deck management

SRM training can help a pilot accurately assess and manage risk and make timely decisions.

Related:

• Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance: Controlled Flight into Terrain
• Flight Deck Management

Use of Resources

Pilots must be aware of the resources found both inside and outside the flight deck to make informed decisions.

Internal resources are found in the airplane. They include the avionics, autopilot, checklists, the AFM/POH, and passengers.

External resources available during flight include ATC and flight service stations (FSS). ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. An FSS can provide updates on weather and airport conditions.

Crew Resource Management

References: 14 CFR 1.1, AC 120-51, AC 120-123, SAFO 15011

Crew resource management (CRM) applies team management and SRM concepts in a flight deck environment. The “crew” encompasses anyone working with the flight crew, including dispatchers, cabin crew, maintenance personnel, and ATC.

The key to crew coordination is "saying the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, in the right way."

Related:

• Before-Takeoff Check: Takeoff Briefing
• Crew and Passenger Briefings
• Flight Lesson Briefing Guide

Pilot Monitoring and Pilot Flying

At any point during a flight, one pilot is flying, and one pilot is monitoring.

The pilot flying (PF):

• Avoids tasks or activities that distract from flying the aircraft.
• Is responsible for managing the flight path and energy of the aircraft.
• Is always engaged in flying the aircraft (even when the aircraft is under autopilot control).

The pilot monitoring (PM):

• Supports the PF at all times.
• Is responsible for monitoring the flight path and energy of the aircraft.
• Calls out deviations and intervenes if necessary.

If the PF needs to engage in activities that would distract from aircraft control, the PF should transfer aircraft control to the other pilot and assume the PM role.

SOPs for Flight Deck Management

• Do not place headsets or other items on the dash to prevent scratching the windscreen.
• Brief all roles and responsibilities, including pilot flying (PF) and pilot monitoring (PM) duties, before flight.
• Discuss the initial autopilot modes and expected transitions during the preflight briefing.
• Use the level of automation that provides the highest margin of safety.
• Verify each autopilot mode change with a verbal callout.
• Display the most relevant information for the current phase of flight.
• Use a three-step verbal and visual handoff process when exchanging flight controls.
• Instruct passengers to avoid unnecessary conversation during critical phases of flight.
• Maintain a sterile cockpit during all ground operations, below 2,500′ AGL, and within 10 minutes of landing.

Checklist Usage

Beginning and Ending a Checklist: State the name of the checklist before beginning. Conclude by stating the name of the checklist and affirming “checklist complete.”

Interrupted Checklists: If the checklist is only delayed for a brief period and the pilot is sure of where he or she was interrupted, the item may be completed, and the checklist may continue. Otherwise, restarting the checklist from the beginning is recommended.

Touch Verification: Enhance accuracy by physically touching each gauge, switch, or control when verifying items. This method minimizes the risk of false confirmations.

Single-Pilot Operations:

• Use the challenge-and-response method during noncritical phases to enhance focus and prevent omissions.
• Apply the flow (do-verify) method during high workload phases to complete tasks efficiently, followed by a checklist review for accuracy.

Two-Pilot Operations:

• Use the challenge-and-response method for critical checklists, including those confirming landing gear and flap configurations.
• Silent checklists may be used by the pilot monitoring during low workload phases but must conclude with a verbal acknowledgment to ensure mutual understanding.

Emergencies: Use the challenge-and-response method for non-normal and emergency checklists to ensure a methodical approach and reduce the risk of errors during critical situations.

Related: Inflight Emergencies: Checklist Usage During Emergencies

Common Errors in Flight Deck Management

• Over or under-reliance on automation
• Failure to prioritize tasks effectively
• Neglecting to use a written checklist
• Missing checklist items due to interruptions or lack of attention
• Neglecting to conduct a passenger safety briefing
• Inadequate use of all available resources

Risk Examples for Preflight Preparation and Procedures

Inoperative Equipment Discovered Before Flight

• Not recognizing and reporting inoperative equipment compromises flight safety and violates regulations; follow proper procedures for managing inoperative equipment.
• Misjudging the significance of inoperative equipment can compromise flight safety; consult with maintenance or experienced personnel for proper evaluation.

Use of Systems or Equipment

• Misuse or overreliance on automation can reduce situational awareness and lead to improper flight management; use automation effectively and understand its capabilities.
• Distraction from portable electronic devices can lead to errors and compromise safety; minimize the use of portable electronic devices during critical phases of flight.

Passenger Distractions

• Passenger conversations can lead to a loss of situational awareness and an increased potential for errors; establish communication protocols before flight.