The PIC is required to:
Except in an emergency, do not carry passengers who appear intoxicated or show physical or behavioral signs of being under the influence of drugs, unless they are medical patients under proper care. Impaired or intoxicated passengers seated near the flight controls can create a direct interference hazard.
Elements of a passenger “SAFETY” briefing:
Other items to consider:
Checklists act as a systematic guide, ensuring that all procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and nothing is omitted. Furthermore, they standardize flight operations, thereby minimizing the chances of human error.
Many checklists differentiate between checklist items by using the terms pilot flying (PF) and pilot monitoring/pilot not flying (PM/PNF) to avoid confusion. The PF is the pilot manipulating the controls, regardless of seat position.
The proper use of a checklist depends on the task being conducted. In some situations, using the checklist would be unsafe or impractical, especially in a single-pilot operation. In this case, reviewing the checklist after the elements are completed would be appropriate.
Challenge-And-Response (Do-List): A typical checklist has two columns. The left column shows the switch or control that needs to be moved or verified (the challenge), and the right column shows the action to take with the switch or control (the response). Each challenge is read, followed by the necessary task or check being completed. A response is made only after verifying that the proper configuration or condition exists.
Flow (Do-Verify): A mental “flow” check can be used in high workload situations. The flow is a systematic scan of the instrument panel. It shows the pilot what items to consider, not what to do. After completing the flow, the checklist is read to verify that all items have been completed.
Pilots may purchase or adapt checklists to streamline operations and incorporate personal preferences. Any changes must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure they align with the manufacturer’s recommendations and aircraft limitations.
Adapting emergency checklists is generally not recommended due to the critical nature of these procedures. Improperly adapted checklists can lead to missed steps, procedural errors, and reduced safety margins during critical situations.
Electronic flight bags (EFBs) provide flight information and applications traditionally carried in a pilot’s flight bag. They can replace paper information when used in accordance with applicable operating rules.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of a network of satellites operated by the U.S. Space Force. The U.S. is committed to maintaining at least 24 operational GPS satellites 95% of the time. To ensure this, 30 or more GPS satellites orbit Earth in approximately 12-hour orbits.
Non-GPS/WAAS Receivers: RAIM availability must be confirmed for the intended route of flight.
RAIM Unavailable: When RAIM is predicted to be unavailable, the flight must rely on other approved navigation equipment, reroute to where RAIM is available, delay departure, or cancel the flight.
WAAS Unavailable: Outside the WAAS coverage or if the WAAS fails, GPS/WAAS equipment reverts to GPS-only operation and satisfies the requirements for basic GPS equipment. For planned operations without WAAS, pilots must verify applicable RAIM availability.
Without RAIM: Unless the FDE conditions below are met, any required alternate airport must have an available instrument approach procedure that does not require the use of GPS and that the aircraft is equipped to fly.
With RAIM and FDE (no WAAS): Pilots may plan to use a GPS-based IAP at either the destination or the alternate airport, but not at both locations. A preflight RAIM prediction must confirm approach integrity availability at the airport where the RNAV (GPS) approach will be flown.
When these conditions are met, pilots may plan for alternate airport minimums using:
With WAAS: Pilots may plan to use any instrument approach procedure authorized for use with their WAAS avionics at the destination and the required alternate with the following restrictions.
A place for everything and everything in its place.
Benjamin Franklin
Before starting the engine, items should be secured and placed within easy reach. These small steps reduce workload and improve safety. Because each pilot organizes differently, the best setup is usually developed through experience.
Effective automation management enables the pilot to assess, detect, and correct errors, helping prevent accidents.
While there is no industry consensus, the levels of automation can be defined as:
No one level of automation is appropriate for all flight situations.
Workload typically decreases as automation levels increase. However, there are times when manually flying can be more beneficial. Pilots should consider stepping down a level in automation when necessary.
Automation should be managed actively rather than passively (“set and forget”). Active automation management enhances situational awareness and helps to identify automation failures.
To actively manage the automation, pilots must:
Caution: Anytime the autopilot is disconnected, the pilot should have a firm grip on the controls to counter any unexpected trim forces.
Autopilot management errors can be reduced by:
Humans are not well suited to monitoring automated systems. Extended periods of performing trivial tasks often lead to daydreaming or complacency.
Monitoring errors can be reduced by:
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
ADM = What pilots intend to do based on the information they have.
1. Define the Problem: A problem is recognized when something changes or when an expected change does not occur. Available information is used to determine the nature and severity of the problem.
2. Choose a Course of Action: The available actions are considered based on the situation, time available, expected outcome, and level of risk.
3. Implement and Evaluate: The selected action is performed, and the outcome is evaluated to determine whether it is producing the desired result.
Single-pilot resource management (SRM) is the art and science of managing all resources (internal and external) available to a single pilot (before and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.
SRM includes the concepts of:
Pilots must be aware of the resources found both inside and outside the flight deck to make informed decisions.
Internal: Resources found in the airplane. They include the avionics, autopilot, checklists, the AFM/POH, and passengers.
External: Resources available during flight include ATC and flight service stations (FSS). ATC can help reduce pilot workload by providing traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance during emergencies. An FSS can provide weather and airport condition updates.
Crew resource management (CRM) makes optimum use of all available resources in a flight deck environment. The “crew” encompasses anyone working with the flight crew, including dispatchers, cabin crew, maintenance personnel, and ATC.
The key to crew coordination is "saying the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, in the right way."
At any point during a flight, one pilot is flying, and one pilot is monitoring.
The pilot flying (PF):
The pilot monitoring (PM):
If the PF needs to engage in activities that would distract from aircraft control, the PF should transfer aircraft control to the other pilot and assume the PM role.
Beginning and Ending a Checklist: State the checklist’s name before beginning. Conclude by stating the checklist name and affirming “checklist complete.”
Interrupted Checklists: If a delay is brief and pilots are certain where the interruption occurred, they may complete the item and continue the checklist. Otherwise, restart the checklist from the beginning.
Touch Verification: Enhance accuracy by physically touching each gauge, switch, or control when verifying items. This method minimizes the risk of false confirmations.
Single-Pilot Operations:
Two-Pilot Operations:
Emergencies: Use the challenge-and-response method for non-normal and emergency checklists to ensure a methodical approach and reduce the risk of errors during critical situations.