Flight Deck Management

Principles of Flight Deck Management

Assurance of sound leadership by the PIC.
Establishment of a logical order of priorities.
Appropriate delegation of tasks and assignments.
Utilization of all available resources to conduct an operation.
Clear communication of all plans and intentions among crewmembers.
Continuous monitoring and cross-checking of essential instruments and systems.

Careful assessment of problems and avoidance of preoccupation with minor ones.

Automation Management

Effective automation management allows the pilot to assess, detect, and correct errors; thus, it helps prevent accidents.

Levels of Automation

While there is no industry consensus, the levels of automation can be defined as:

No Automation: Flight director OFF; Autopilot OFF.
Basic Guidance: Flight director ON; Autopilot OFF.
Simple Automation: Autopilot in roll or heading mode; Altitude hold or climb/descent mode.
Advanced Automation: Autopilot guided by a GPS or FMS; Altitude hold.

No one level of automation is appropriate for all flight situations.

Using the Appropriate Level of Automation

Workload typically decreases at higher levels of automation. However, there are times when manually flying can be more beneficial.

Underuse of Automation

The underuse of automation can lead to errors resulting from the increased workload.

Common errors of automation underuse include:

Failing to monitor and make radio communications
Failing to accomplish a normal checklist
Not updating the weather information when nearing the destination

Overuse of Automation

The overuse of automation can lead to complacency and degraded hand-flying competence and confidence. Pilots should regularly fly the aircraft manually to maintain stick-and-rudder proficiency.

Common errors of automation overuse include:

Losing situation awareness while programming the automation
Forgetting to verify the autopilot mode
Blindly following flight director cues
Confusion about autopilot engagement or mode
Displaying the wrong navigation source
Substituting a moving map for a VFR Sectional or IFR En Route Low Altitude Chart

Active Automation Management

Automation should be managed actively rather than passively ("set and forget"). Active automation management enhances situational awareness and helps to identify automation failures.

To actively manage the automation, pilots must:

Cross-reference the data provided by various systems.
Monitor the flight progress (e.g., waypoints and fuel burn).
Know how the technology normally performs and its failure modes.
Be ready to take action if the system does not perform as expected.

Autopilot Management

Managing the autopilot means knowing which modes are engaged and which are armed to engage.

Autopilot management errors can be reduced by:

Verifying each button press is recognized by the system.
Making callouts after every mode change and when arming the system.

Caution: Anytime the autopilot is disconnected, the pilot should have a firm grip on the controls to counter any unexpected trim forces.

Automation Management Errors

Humans are not well suited for being automated system monitors. Extended periods of performing trivial tasks often lead to daydreaming or complacency.

Monitoring errors can be reduced by:

Guarding against fixation.
Making consistent verifications and callouts.
Scanning the instruments in the same way as when hand flying.

Task Management

Effective task management ensures that essential operations are accomplished without overloading the pilot.

Like any other skill, pilots must learn to:

Plan, prioritize, and sequence tasks.
Perform several tasks at once (multitask).
Deal with distractions and interruptions.
Overcome problems with fixation and inattention.

Margin of Safety

Accidents often occur when flying task requirements exceed the pilot's capabilities. The difference between these two factors is called the margin of safety.

The highest task requirements typically occur during the approach and landing phase. At the same time, the pilot's capabilities may deteriorate due to fatigue or distractions.

Multitasking

Multitasking is the simultaneous execution of two or more tasks. It involves two different abilities: attention switching and simultaneous performance.

Attention switching is the continuous switching of attention back and forth between two or more tasks. For many flying tasks, attention switching is the only way to accomplish multitasking.

Simultaneous performance, or performing several tasks at once, is possible when skills develop to the point of being automatic.

Multitasking Limitations

Processing Power: Multitasking comes from a computer's ability to execute tasks simultaneously. But humans are not computers. Human multitasking is a series of constant micro-interruptions and "stop-go" decisions, all of which reduce mental and motor performance.

Lack of Experience: Inexperience with a task can often hinder attempts to combine it with other tasks. New skills should develop in isolation from other tasks.

Exclusion: It isn't easy to perform more than one task that requires cognitive effort. Attention is often devoted to the comprehension of one to the exclusion of the other.

Diminished Quality: When workload increases, the typical response is to reduce standards for quality and achievement.

Errors in Task Management

Task saturation occurs whenever work requirements exceed the worker's capabilities. When a pilot becomes task-saturated, situational awareness is lost, and the possibility of error increases.

Distractions occur when an unexpected event causes attention to be momentarily diverted. Pilots must learn to decide whether a distraction warrants further attention or action.

Interruptions occur when a pilot voluntarily stops performing one task to complete a different one. This can lead to an error if the original task is not resumed correctly.

Fixation occurs when a pilot becomes absorbed in performing one task to the exclusion of other tasks. Fixation on a task often indicates that the task has not received enough practice in isolation.

Inattention occurs when a pilot ignores an important task. It is sometimes a by-product of fixation.

Complacency is overconfidence that results from repeated experience with an activity. It is an insidious and hard-to-identify attitude.

Best Practices for Task Management

Use automation judiciously.
Prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating.
Anticipate the workload associated with the next phase of flight.
Be wary of inoperative equipment. An inoperative autopilot or navigation instrument can vastly increase workload.

Information Management

Information management is the ability to monitor, manage, and prioritize a continuous flow of information to accomplish specific tasks. Proper information management reduces pilot workload, enhances situational awareness, and increases navigational accuracy.

Best Practices for Information Management

Understand avionics and systems at a conceptual level. Learning knob-and-dial procedures is not enough.
Double-check mode selections and make verbal callouts. At a minimum, ensure the presentation makes sense.
Stop, look, and read. Reading before pushing, pulling, or twisting knobs can often save a pilot some trouble.

Setup the avionics to display the most information needed for any given flight situation:
Display the nearest airports at night or over rough terrain.
For terminal area operations, use a lower map scale setting ("zoom in").
Utilize terrain displays for a night flight near mountains.

Flight Deck Organization

A place for everything and everything in its place. Benjamin Franklin

Before starting the engine, items should be arranged to be secure and accessible. Essential equipment should be within easy reach.

These seemingly small actions can reduce workload and enhance safety. Since everyone has a different way of organizing themselves, the optimal arrangement comes through experimentation.

Best Practices for Flight Deck Organization

Do not block the flight controls with mounted accessories, cords, or lap organizers (kneeboards).
Do not place headsets or other items on the dash to prevent scratching the windscreen.
Do not mount electronics or other devices to the windshield or windows. The pilot must be able to see in all directions.
Use a flight bag to secure loose items that won't be needed in flight.

Positive Transfer of Controls

A recommended three-step process of exchange includes:

A verbal handoff from the pilot flying (e.g., "You have the flight controls.").
A verbal acceptance by the pilot taking over (e.g., "I have the flight controls.").
A verbal and visual confirmation that the exchange has taken place by the pilot relinquishing control (e.g., "You have the flight controls.").

This procedure should be briefed before flight and include a method to relinquish and take control of the aircraft when normal communications are not possible (e.g., intercom failure).

Sterile Cockpit Rule

Commonly known as the sterile cockpit rule, air carrier pilots must refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight.

Critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000' except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as eating or chatting.

The equivalent sterile cockpit altitude for light aircraft can be defined as 2,500' AGL or at any altitude within 10 minutes of landing.

Checklist Usage

Checklist act a systematic guide, ensuring that all procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and nothing is omitted. Furthermore, they standardize flight operations, thereby minimizing the chances of human error.

The proper use of a checklist is dependent on the task being conducted. The situation may be such that using the checklist would be either unsafe or impractical, especially in a single-pilot operation. In this case, reviewing the checklist after the elements have been accomplished would be appropriate.

Pilot Flying and Pilot Monitoring

Many checklists differentiate the performance of checklist items by using the terms "pilot flying" (PF) and "pilot monitoring/pilot not flying" (PM/PNF) to avoid confusion. The PF refers to the pilot manipulating the controls, regardless of which seat he or she occupies.

Checklist Accomplishment Methods

Challenge-And-Response (Do-List): On a typical checklist, there are two columns. The left column is the switch or control that needs to be moved or verified (the challenge). In the right column is the action that needs to be taken with the switch or control (the response).

Each challenge is read and is followed by the necessary task or check being accomplished. A response is made only after verifying the proper configuration or condition exists.

Flow (Do-Verify): A mental "flow" check can be used in high workload situations. The flow is a systematic scan of the instrument panel. It shows the pilot what items to consider, not what to do. After completing the flow, the checklist is read to verify that all items have been completed.

General Procedures for Checklists

Beginning and Ending a Checklist: To complete a checklist, state the name of the checklist, do the checklist, and when finished, state the name of the checklist again along with the statement "checklist complete."

Interrupted Checklists: If the checklist is only delayed for a brief period, and the pilot is sure of where he or she was interrupted, the item may be completed and the checklist continued. Otherwise, restarting the checklist from the beginning is recommended.

Touch Verification: Pilots sometimes erroneously respond to a checklist item, believing it was accomplished when it was not. Looking at and then touching each gauge, switch, or control helps improve accuracy.

Single-Pilot Operations: During noncritical phases of flight, the pilot should use the challenge-and-response method. The flow (do-verify) method can be used when the workload is higher.

Two-Pilot Operations: The challenge-and-response method is best for a crew environment. The PF should initiate each checklist by calling for it by name. The PNF should perform the checklist while the PF continues to fly. Critical items, such as the flap position, should always be verbalized. The PNF should state when the checklist is complete.

Use of Commercially or Personally Developed Checklists

Pilots that choose to use commercially or personally developed checklists should compare them to the manufacturer's checklist and aircraft placards to confirm they are consistent. This will ensure the pilot has all pertinent information during flight operations.

Passenger Safety Briefing

The PIC is required to:

Brief passengers on how to fasten and unfasten their safety belts.
Notify passengers to fasten their safety belts before taxi, takeoff, and landing.
For experimental and light-sport aircraft, notify each passenger of the aircraft's special nature.
For large and turbine-powered airplanes, comply with 14 CFR 91.519 (passenger briefing).

Elements of a passenger "SAFETY" briefing:

Seatbelts: How to fasten and unfasten; Required during taxi, takeoff, and landing
Air: How to operate the environmental controls; The location of vents and airsickness bags; Smoking is prohibited
Fire Extinguisher: Its location, how to unlatch it from its mount, and how to use it

Exits, Emergencies, and Equipment: The location and operation of doors and emergency exits; Emergency procedures; The location and use of emergency and survival equipment
Traffic and Talking: The importance of visual scanning; Sterile cockpit requirements
Your Questions?: Allow passengers to ask questions

Other items to consider:

If under IFR, the allowed use of portable electronic devices
If flying over water, ditching procedures
PIC authority

Crew Resource Management

Crew resource management (CRM) applies team management and SRM concepts in a flight deck environment. The "crew" encompasses anyone working with the flight crew, including dispatchers, cabin crew, maintenance personnel, and ATC.

The key to crew coordination is "saying the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, in the right way."

Preflight Briefing for CRM

Before any flight, the PIC should conduct a crew resource management (CRM) briefing to establish open communications, teamwork, and crew coordination.

Elements of a CRM briefing:

PIC designation as defined by 14 CFR 1.1
Responsibilities of the pilot flying (PF) and pilot monitoring (PM)
Standard operating procedures
Proper exchange of the flight controls
Guidelines for the operation of automated systems (e.g., when systems will be used and which actions must be verbalized and acknowledged)

Pilot Monitoring and Pilot Fying

At any point during a flight, one pilot is flying and one pilot is monitoring.

The pilot flying (PF):

Avoids tasks or activities that distract from flying the aircraft.
Is responsible for managing the flight path and energy of the aircraft.
Is always engaged in flying the aircraft (even when the aircraft is under autopilot control).

The pilot monitoring (PM):

Supports the PF at all times.
Is responsible for monitoring the flight path and energy of the aircraft.
Calls out any perceived or potential deviations from the intended flight path, and intervenes if necessary.

If the PF needs to engage in activities that would distract from aircraft control, the PF should transfer aircraft control to the other pilot, and assume the PM role.

The Four-Step Assertive Statement for Conflict Resolution

Address the Individual: Address the person by name.
State the Concern Clearly: Don't be vague.
Propose an Action or Solution: State what needs to happen.
Obtain Agreement: Ask what he or she thinks.

"Hey, Bob, we only have 30 minutes of fuel remaining. We need to land ASAP. What do you think about that airport over there?"

The "Two-Challenge Rule" for Intervention

The two-challenge rule is an intervention policy that allows one pilot to automatically assume the duties of another pilot if he or she fails to react after two consecutive challenges. The failure to respond could be confusion, task saturation, or incapacitation.

Example:

The airplane descends below the glideslope.
The PM states, "half-dot low and increasing." There is no response or correction from the PF.
The PM states, "one-dot low and increasing." There is still no response or correction from the PF.
The PM states "I have the flight controls" and initiates a missed approach.