Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are written policies and practices designed to ensure operational consistency and reduce errors. They encompass normal, abnormal, non-normal, and emergency operations to produce predictable and safe outcomes in all phases of flight.

SOPs = Doing it the right way, all the time, every time.

Structure of an SOP

Each SOP provides a structured approach to tasks in all flight phases, detailing what needs to be done, when it should be done, and who is responsible for its execution.

Personalizing and Developing SOPs

SOPs should be adapted to align with specific equipment and the individual pilot, instructor, or flight school. They can be structured around five key areas that cover all phases of flight: Plan, Brief, Do, Review, and Renew.

• Plan (Flight Preparation): Ensure readiness by addressing pilot, aircraft, environment, and external pressures (PAVE) using a structured preflight approach.
• Brief (Shared Mental Models): Align expectations through preflight, passenger, and phase-specific briefings to enhance coordination and preparedness.

• Do (Execution of the Flight): Use checklists, callouts, and standard profiles (routines) to maintain consistency.
• Review (Post-Flight Analysis): Conduct debriefs to identify lessons learned and guide future improvements.
• Renew (Continuous Improvement): Regularly refine skills and update procedures.

Effective automation management allows the pilot to assess, detect, and correct errors; thus, it helps prevent accidents.

Levels of Automation

While there is no industry consensus, the levels of automation can be defined as:

1. No Automation: Flight director OFF; Autopilot OFF.
2. Basic Guidance: Flight director ON; Autopilot OFF.
3. Simple Automation: Autopilot in roll or heading mode; Altitude hold or climb/descent mode.
4. Advanced Automation: Autopilot guided by a GPS or FMS; Altitude hold.

No one level of automation is appropriate for all flight situations.

Using the Appropriate Level of Automation

Workload typically decreases at higher levels of automation. However, there are times when manually flying can be more beneficial. Pilots should consider stepping down a level in automation when necessary.

Underuse of Automation

The underuse of automation can lead to errors resulting from the increased workload.

Common errors of automation underuse include:

• Failing to monitor and make radio communications
• Failing to accomplish a normal checklist
• Not updating the weather information when nearing the destination

Overuse of Automation

The overuse of automation can lead to complacency and degraded hand-flying competence and confidence. Pilots should regularly fly the aircraft manually to maintain stick-and-rudder proficiency.

Common errors of automation overuse include:

• Losing situation awareness while programming the automation
• Forgetting to verify the autopilot mode
• Blindly following flight director cues
• Displaying the wrong navigation source
• Confusion about autopilot engagement or mode
• Substituting a moving map display (unapproved) for a current aeronautical chart

Active Automation Management

Automation should be managed actively rather than passively (“set and forget”). Active automation management enhances situational awareness and helps to identify automation failures.

To actively manage the automation, pilots must:

• Cross-reference the data provided by various systems.
• Monitor the flight progress (e.g., waypoints and fuel burn).
• Know how the technology normally performs and its failure modes.
• Be ready to take action if the system does not perform as expected.

Autopilot Mode Verifications

Managing the autopilot means knowing which modes are engaged and which are armed to engage.

Autopilot management errors can be reduced by:

• Verifying each button press is recognized by the system.
• Making callouts after every mode change and when arming the system.

Caution: Anytime the autopilot is disconnected, the pilot should have a firm grip on the controls to counter any unexpected trim forces.

Automation Management Errors

Humans are not well suited for monitoring automated systems. Extended periods of performing trivial tasks often lead to daydreaming or complacency.

Monitoring errors can be reduced by:

• Guarding against fixation.
• Making consistent verifications and callouts.
• Scanning the instruments in the same way as when hand flying.

Effective task management ensures that essential operations are accomplished without overloading the pilot.

Task Saturation

Task saturation occurs when the demands of a task exceed the pilot’s capacity to manage them, leading to lost situational awareness and increased risk of error. Effective task management helps pilots prioritize and complete tasks without overload.

Margin of Safety

Accidents often occur when flying task requirements exceed the pilot’s capabilities. The difference between these two factors is called the margin of safety.

The highest task requirements typically occur during the approach and landing phase. At the same time, the pilot’s capabilities may deteriorate due to fatigue or distractions.

Multitasking

Multitasking is the simultaneous execution of two or more tasks. It involves two different abilities: attention switching and simultaneous performance.

Attention switching is the continuous switching of attention back and forth between two or more tasks.

Simultaneous performance, or performing several tasks at once, is possible when skills develop to the point of being automatic.

Multitasking Limitations

Processing Power: Multitasking comes from a computer’s ability to execute tasks simultaneously. But humans are not computers. Human multitasking involves constant micro-interruptions and “stop-go” decisions, all of which reduce mental and motor performance.

Lack of Experience: Inexperience with a task can often hinder attempts to combine it with other tasks. New skills should be developed in isolation.

Exclusion: It isn’t easy to perform more than one task that requires cognitive effort. Attention is often devoted to comprehending one to the exclusion of the other.

Diminished Quality: When workload increases, the typical response is to reduce standards for quality and achievement.

Errors in Task Management

Distractions occur when an unexpected event momentarily diverts attention. Pilots must learn to decide whether a distraction warrants further attention or action.

Interruptions occur when a pilot voluntarily stops performing one task to complete a different one. If the original task is not resumed correctly, this can lead to an error.

Fixation occurs when a pilot becomes absorbed in performing one task to the exclusion of other tasks. Fixation on a task often indicates that the task has not received enough practice in isolation.

Inattention occurs when a pilot ignores an important task. It is sometimes a by-product of fixation.

Complacency is overconfidence that results from repeated experience with an activity. It is an insidious and hard-to-identify attitude.

Best Practices for Task Management

• Use automation judiciously.
• Prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating.
• Anticipate the workload associated with the next phase of flight.
• Be wary of inoperative equipment. An inoperative autopilot or navigation instrument can vastly increase workload.

Information management is the ability to monitor, manage, and prioritize a continuous flow of information to accomplish specific tasks. Proper information management reduces pilot workload, enhances situational awareness, and increases navigational accuracy.

Best Practices for Information Management

• Understand avionics and systems at a conceptual level. Learning knob-and-dial procedures is not enough.
• Stop, look, and read. Reading before pushing, pulling, or twisting knobs can often save a pilot some trouble.
• Setup the avionics to display the most information needed for any given flight situation:
• Display the nearest airports at night or over rough terrain.

• For terminal area operations, use a lower map scale setting (“zoom in”).
• Utilize terrain displays for a night flight near mountains.

A place for everything and everything in its place.

Benjamin Franklin

Before starting the engine, items should be arranged to be secure and accessible. Essential equipment should be within easy reach.

These seemingly small actions can reduce workload and enhance safety. Since everyone has a different way of organizing themselves, the optimal arrangement comes through experimentation.

Best Practices for Flight Deck Organization

• Use a flight bag to secure loose items that won’t be needed in flight.
• Do not block the flight controls with mounted accessories, cords, or lap organizers (kneeboards).
• Do not mount electronics or other devices to the windshield or windows. The pilot must be able to see in all directions.

A clear understanding of who has control of the aircraft must exist. Prior to flight, the pilots involved should conduct a briefing that includes reviewing the procedures for exchanging flight controls.

A recommended three-step process of exchange includes:

1. A verbal handoff from the pilot flying (e.g., “You have the flight controls.”).
2. A verbal acceptance by the pilot taking over (e.g., “I have the flight controls.”).
3. A verbal and visual confirmation that the exchange has taken place by the pilot relinquishing control (e.g., “You have the flight controls.”).

The preflight briefing should include a method for relinquishing and taking control of the aircraft when normal communications are not possible (e.g., intercom failure) and it should set the expectations in the event of an emergency situation.

Commonly known as the sterile cockpit rule, air carrier pilots must refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight.

Critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000′ except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include things like eating or chatting.

The equivalent sterile cockpit altitude for light aircraft can be defined as 2,500′ AGL or at any altitude within 10 minutes of landing.

Checklists act as a systematic guide, ensuring that all procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and nothing is omitted. Furthermore, they standardize flight operations, thereby minimizing the chances of human error.

Pilot Flying and Pilot Monitoring

Many checklists differentiate the performance of checklist items by using the terms “pilot flying” (PF) and “pilot monitoring/pilot not flying” (PM/PNF) to avoid confusion. The PF refers to the pilot manipulating the controls, regardless of which seat he or she occupies.

Checklist Accomplishment Methods

The proper use of a checklist depends on the task being conducted. In some situations, using the checklist would be unsafe or impractical, especially in a single-pilot operation. In this case, reviewing the checklist after the elements have been accomplished would be appropriate.

Challenge-And-Response (Do-List): A typical checklist has two columns. The left column shows the switch or control that needs to be moved or verified (the challenge), and the right column shows the action that needs to be taken with the switch or control (the response). Each challenge is read and is followed by the necessary task or check being accomplished. A response is made only after verifying the proper configuration or condition exists.

Flow (Do-Verify): A mental “flow” check can be used in high workload situations. The flow is a systematic scan of the instrument panel. It shows the pilot what items to consider, not what to do. After completing the flow, the checklist is read to verify that all items have been completed.

Use of Commercially or Personally Developed Checklists

Pilots may purchase or adapt checklists to streamline operations and incorporate personal preferences. Any changes must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure they align with the manufacturer’s recommendations and aircraft limitations.

Adapting emergency checklists is generally not recommended due to the critical nature of these procedures. Improperly adapted checklists can lead to missed steps, procedural errors, and reduced safety margins during critical situations.

The PIC is required to:

• Brief passengers on how to fasten and unfasten their safety belts.
• Notify passengers to fasten their safety belts before taxi, takeoff, and landing.
• For experimental and light-sport aircraft, notify each passenger of the aircraft’s special nature.
• For large and turbine-powered airplanes, comply with 14 CFR 91.519 (passenger briefing).

Elements of a passenger “SAFETY” briefing:

• Seatbelts: How to fasten and unfasten; Required during taxi, takeoff, and landing
• Air: How to operate the environmental controls; The location of vents and airsickness bags; Smoking is prohibited
• Fire Extinguisher: Its location, how to unlatch it from its mount, and how to use it

• Exits, Emergencies, and Equipment: The location and operation of doors and emergency exits; Emergency procedures; The location and use of emergency and survival equipment
• Traffic and Talking: The importance of visual scanning; Sterile cockpit requirements
• Your Questions?: Allow passengers to ask questions

Other items to consider:

• If under IFR, the allowed use of portable electronic devices
• If flying over water, ditching procedures
• PIC authority

Crew resource management (CRM) applies team management and SRM concepts in a flight deck environment. The “crew” encompasses anyone working with the flight crew, including dispatchers, cabin crew, maintenance personnel, and ATC.

The key to crew coordination is "saying the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, in the right way."

Preflight Briefing for CRM

Before any flight, the PIC should conduct a crew resource management (CRM) briefing to establish open communications, teamwork, and crew coordination.

Elements of a CRM briefing:

• PIC designation as defined by 14 CFR 1.1
• Responsibilities of the pilot flying (PF) and pilot monitoring (PM)
• Standard operating procedures
• Proper exchange of the flight controls
• Guidelines for the operation of automated systems (e.g., when systems will be used and which actions must be verbalized and acknowledged)

Pilot Monitoring and Pilot Flying

At any point during a flight, one pilot is flying, and one pilot is monitoring.

The pilot flying (PF):

• Avoids tasks or activities that distract from flying the aircraft.
• Is responsible for managing the flight path and energy of the aircraft.
• Is always engaged in flying the aircraft (even when the aircraft is under autopilot control).

The pilot monitoring (PM):

• Supports the PF at all times.
• Is responsible for monitoring the flight path and energy of the aircraft.
• Calls out deviations and intervenes if necessary.

If the PF needs to engage in activities that would distract from aircraft control, the PF should transfer aircraft control to the other pilot and assume the PM role.

The Four-Step Assertive Statement for Conflict Resolution

1. Address the Individual: Address the person by name.
2. State the Concern Clearly: Don’t be vague.
3. Propose an Action or Solution: State what needs to happen.
4. Obtain Agreement: Ask what he or she thinks.

The “Two-Challenge Rule” for Intervention

The two-challenge rule is an intervention policy that allows one pilot to automatically assume the duties of another pilot if he or she fails to react after two consecutive challenges. The failure to respond could be confusion, task saturation, or incapacitation.

Example:

1. The airplane descends below the glideslope.
2. The PM states, “half-dot low and increasing.” There is no response or correction from the PF.
3. The PM states, “one-dot low and increasing.” There is still no response or correction from the PF.
4. The PM states, “I have the flight controls,” and initiates a missed approach.

• Do not place headsets or other items on the dash to prevent scratching the windscreen.
• Brief all roles and responsibilities, including pilot flying (PF) and pilot monitoring (PM) duties, before flight.
• Discuss the initial autopilot modes and expected transitions during the preflight briefing.
• Use the level of automation that provides the highest margin of safety.

• Verify each autopilot mode change with a verbal callout.
• Display the most relevant information for the current phase of flight.
• Use a three-step verbal and visual handoff process when exchanging flight controls.
• Instruct passengers to avoid unnecessary conversation during critical phases of flight.

• Maintain a sterile cockpit during all ground operations, below 2,500′ AGL, and within 10 minutes of landing.

Checklist Usage

Beginning and Ending a Checklist: State the name of the checklist before beginning. Conclude by stating the name of the checklist and affirming “checklist complete.”

Interrupted Checklists: If the checklist is only delayed for a brief period and the pilot is sure of where he or she was interrupted, the item may be completed, and the checklist may continue. Otherwise, restarting the checklist from the beginning is recommended.

Touch Verification: Enhance accuracy by physically touching each gauge, switch, or control when verifying items. This method minimizes the risk of false confirmations.

Single-Pilot Operations:

• Use the challenge-and-response method during noncritical phases to enhance focus and prevent omissions.
• Apply the flow (do-verify) method during high workload phases to complete tasks efficiently, followed by a checklist review for accuracy.

Two-Pilot Operations:

• Use the challenge-and-response method for critical checklists, including those confirming landing gear and flap configurations.
• Silent checklists may be used by the pilot monitoring during low workload phases but must conclude with a verbal acknowledgment to ensure mutual understanding.

Emergencies: Use the challenge-and-response method for non-normal and emergency checklists to ensure a methodical approach and reduce the risk of errors during critical situations.

• Over or under-reliance on automation
• Failure to prioritize tasks effectively
• Neglecting to use a written checklist
• Missing checklist items due to interruptions or lack of attention
• Neglecting to conduct a passenger safety briefing
• Inadequate use of all available resources