Runway Incursion Avoidance

Runway Incursions

A runway incursion is any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.

A surface incident is similar to a runway incursion but occurs on a designated movement area (not a runway) and affects or could affect the safety of flight.

Runway Incursion Statistics

In the U.S., an average of three runway incursions occur daily. According to FAA data, approximately 65% of all runway incursions are caused by pilots, of which GA pilots cause 75%.

Taxi Instructions

When transmitting taxi instructions, ATC specifies:

The departure runway.
The taxi route.
Any hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances if the taxi route crosses a runway.

Movement Versus Nonmovement Areas

A movement area is the runways, taxiways, and other areas of an airport that are used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing. Nonmovement areas include ramps and parking areas and are not controlled by ATC.

At a towered airport, the movement area is controlled by ATC. Pilots must receive clearance before taxiing in a movement area.

Required Readbacks

Pilots must always read back:

The runway assignment.
Any clearance to taxi onto or cross a specific runway.
Any instruction to hold short of a runway or line up and wait.

The readback for a hold short instruction should include the words “hold short,” the runway or taxiway designator, and the aircraft’s call sign.

Progressive Taxi Instructions

If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or unsure of a taxi route, a “progressive taxi” should be requested. Progressive taxi requires ATC to provide step-by-step taxi instructions.

Hold Short Instructions

When ATC issues “hold short” instructions, the pilot must taxi up to but not cross any part of the runway holding marking.

Example Instructions: "Runway 36L, taxi via Alpha, hold short of Runway 27."

ATC issues further instructions if pilots are expected to hold short of a runway approach/departure hold area (e.g., 22-APPCH/22-DEP) or ILS holding position.

Explicit Runway Crossings

ATC must issue specific instructions to “cross” or “hold short” of each runway, even if the runway is closed. Instructions to cross a runway are typically issued one at a time, and an aircraft must have crossed the previous runway before another runway crossing is issued. Exceptions are made for closely spaced runways.

Pilots may not enter a runway unless they have been:

Instructed to cross or taxi onto that runway;
Cleared to take off from that runway; or
Instructed to line up and wait on that runway.

Line Up and Wait Instructions

ATC uses the “line up and wait” (LUAW) instruction when a takeoff clearance cannot be issued immediately. ATC should state the reason for any delay in issuing the takeoff clearance.

Example Instructions: "Runway 27, line up and wait."

The pilot should contact ATC if a takeoff clearance is not received within 90 seconds of getting a line-up-and-wait instruction.

Example: "[call sign] holding in position Runway 27."

Use of Written Taxi Instructions

When the taxi instructions are complex, written instructions are desirable. Written instructions can be used to read back the instructions to ATC and recall any forgotten information later. To help copy the instructions, pilots should develop a set of symbols and shorthand notations.

Suggested shorthand symbols:

Hold Short: A slash (/) before the hold point
Cross: (×) before the runway number
Turn: Left (←) or Right (→)

Example Instructions: "Runway 36L, taxi via Bravo, Echo, hold short of Runway 27 at Echo."
Example Shorthand: "36L B E /27 E"

Hot Spots

A hot spot is a location in an airport movement area with a history or potential risk of collision or runway incursion, where pilots’ and drivers’ heightened attention is necessary. They are typically located at confusing taxiway and runway intersections.

Chart Depiction of Hot Spots

Hot spots are depicted on airport diagrams as an open circle or ellipse for ground movement hot spots and a cylinder (rectangle) for wrong surface hot spots. They are designated by “HS” and a number (e.g., HS 1 or HS 2).

Hot spots are also described in Chart Supplements publications under the “Hots Spots” heading. They remain charted until the increased risk has been reduced or eliminated.

Holding Position Markings

Runway holding position markings indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway. These markings consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, extending across the taxiway or runway width. The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold.

Runway holding position markings may be encountered:

On taxiways where an aircraft is supposed to stop when it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway.
On runways that ATC uses for land and hold short operations (LAHSO) or taxiing operations.

On taxiways located in runway approach areas are used at some airports where a taxiway is located in an approach or departure area. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of a runway approach or departure area (e.g., “22-APCH” sign).

Example Instructions: "Hold short of Runway 32 approach area."

Holding position markings for instrument landing system (ILS) critical areas consist of two solid yellow lines (horizontal) connected by pairs of solid lines (vertical) extending across the width of the taxiway. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of an ILS critical area.

Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single, yellow dashed line extending across the taxiway’s width.

Airport Signs

Mandatory instruction signs have a red background with a white inscription. They are used to denote an entrance to a runway or critical area, and areas where an aircraft is prohibited from entering.

Typical mandatory signs and applications are:

Runway holding position signs
Runway approach area holding position signs
ILS critical area holding position signs
No entry signs

Location signs typically have a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border. They are used to identify where the aircraft is located.

Typical location sign applications are:

Taxiway location signs
Runway location signs
Runway boundary signs (yellow background with a black graphic depicting the runway holding position marking)
ILS critical area boundary signs (yellow background with a black graphic depicting the ILS holding position marking)

Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn.

Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a destination on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction to a destination. Destinations commonly shown are runways, terminals, cargo areas, and FBOs.

Information signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. These signs provide the pilot with information such as radio frequencies and noise abatement procedures.

Runway distance remaining signs have a black background with a white numeral inscription and may be installed along one or both sides of the runway. The number on the signs indicates the distance, in thousands of feet, of runway remaining.

Best Practices for Avoiding Surface Deviations

The best way to avoid a runway incursion is to make sure you understand (1) where you are at, (2) what you have been cleared to do, and (3) where you are going.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): GA pilots should develop and adhere to SOPs based on regulations and industry best practices. A sterile cockpit and proper use of aircraft lights should be defined in every pilot’s set procedures.

Situational Awareness (SA): Pilots can establish SA by reviewing the expected taxi route and hot spot locations. Pilots can maintain SA by avoiding heads-down time when taxiing.

Proficiency: Recurrent training and continuing education lead to proficiency. A flight to a towered airport with an experienced instructor is a good way to learn and practice.

Point and Acknowledge: Pointing at and calling out location signs and markings can help a pilot maintain focus and attention.

Taxi Route Knowledge and Planning

Pilots should give as much attention to planning the airport surface movement as other phases of flight. This planning should be completed in two phases: review items and briefing items.

Review Items

Current airport NOTAMs.
If available, the ATIS for runway and taxiway closures, construction activity, and other airport-specific risks.
The current airport diagram.
Standard taxi routes, if published.
The location of hot spots and other potential areas for a runway incursion.
The suitability of intersections that may be used at takeoff.

Briefing Items

The expected taxi route, to include the locations of hold short lines and runways to cross.
Critical locations on the taxi route (e.g., hot spots, complex intersections, and crossing runways).
The display of the airport diagram and the plan to track progress on the chart.
The timing and execution of aircraft checklists and communications at times that will not interfere with taxiing activity.

The importance of a sterile cockpit, but encourage occupants to speak up if a potential conflict is spotted.
Unusual procedures or techniques that are not typically used.
Remind passengers that using cell phones and other electrical devices is discouraged.

Towered Airport Considerations for Taxiing

Identify and stay aware of hot spots.
Clear left and right before crossing any runway.
Do not assume a runway is clear solely based on ATC clearance to taxi onto it.
Cross or exit runways promptly when cleared.
Never stop on a runway unless directed by ATC.
Avoid expectation bias when copying and reading back ATC clearances.

Be aware that hold short lines may be located up to 400′ from the runway edge.
Exercise caution when taxiing between active parallel runways.

SOPs for Taxiing

Complete all checklist items, program the avionics, and set the communication and navigation radios before taxiing to reduce workload during movement.
Review and brief any changes to the expected taxi route immediately upon receiving instructions to ensure situational awareness.

Keep the airport diagram available and use all visual cues, including the heading indicator, to track progress and adhere to the taxi route.
Maintain a sterile cockpit to enhance focus and prevent distractions.
The parking brake can be used to assist the pilot but can not be relied upon to hold the aircraft stationary. Feet must remain on the brakes while the aircraft is stopped.

Line-Up-and-Wait Operations (Towered Airports)

Turn on traffic information displays, if equipped, and zoom in to monitor nearby traffic.
Increase the aircraft’s visibility by turning on all exterior lights except the landing lights. Turn the landing lights on when the aircraft begins rolling.
At night, line up slightly left or right of the centerline to help distinguish the aircraft from the runway lights.

Best Practices for Avoiding Runway Incursions During Takeoff

At All Airports:

Scan the final approach path and runway environment before entering the runway.
Verify the correct runway by observing the runway designation marking or sign.
Verify the heading indicator matches the runway direction.

At Nontowered Airports:

Do not “line up and wait.”
Make a 360° turn to scan for traffic.
Communicate and listen on the appropriate frequency.
Be aware that traffic may use more than one runway, especially if the winds are light or variable.

At Towered Airports:

Before entering the runway, ensure you are cleared to do so and that it is safe (“trust but verify”).

SOPs for Landing and Taxiing to Parking

Before landing, establish a plan to exit the runway and review the expected taxi route to the parking location.
Do not accept last-minute turnoff instructions from the tower unless you are certain you can safely comply.
Never stop on an active runway to ask for directions; clear the runway first.
Do not exit the landing runway onto a crossing runway without an ATC clearance.

Make no configuration changes until after the aircraft has exited the runway.
Guard against the pitfall of following expectations instead of the instructions received from ATC.

Risk Examples for Technical Subjects

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, and disorientation increase the likelihood of errors, delayed or missed actions, and the inability to process information accurately and timely; minimize non-essential activities, follow the “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate” prioritization, and stay focused.

Confirmation or Expectation Bias as Related to Taxi Instructions

Confirmation bias causes selectively hearing taxi instructions that align with previous beliefs, leading to incorrect taxi routes; question assumptions and verify instructions with ATC.
Expectation bias results in acting on anticipated clearances based on past experience, missing changes in current instructions; stay vigilant for changes and review instructions carefully.

Entering or Crossing Runways

Miscommunication with ATC increases the likelihood of entering or crossing a runway without clearance; verify instructions with ATC, repeat back clearances, and ask for clarification if uncertain.
Not visually confirming the runway is clear can result in collisions with landing or departing aircraft; visually check for traffic before entering or crossing a runway, even if cleared by ATC.

Distraction while taxiing increases the likelihood of runway incursions; avoid non-essential tasks and focus attention outside the aircraft.

Runway Incursions During Night Operations

Difficulty in seeing taxiway markings and signs can lead to misidentifying taxiways or runways and increase the likelihood of runway incursions; maintain heightened situational awareness and reduce taxi speed.
Improper use of exterior lights increases the risk of not being seen; check the operation of all exterior lighting during preflight inspection and use external lighting when appropriate.

Low Visibility Taxi Operations

Poor visibility increases the likelihood of making a wrong turn or inadvertently entering a runway; use an airport diagram and taxi at reduced speeds.
Difficulty in following taxi instructions due to reduced visibility can lead to disorientation; seek ATC assistance when necessary.

Runway Incursion After Landing

Not clearing the runway quickly increases the likelihood of runway incursions; exit the runway promptly on the first available taxiway.
Airports with close parallel runways increase the likelihood of runway incursions due to proximity; maintain situational awareness and follow ATC instructions closely.

Operating on Taxiways Between Parallel Runways

Incorrect taxiway identification can lead to runway incursions or conflicts with aircraft on the taxiway; review airport diagrams.
Miscommunication with ATC can result in runway incursions or conflicts with aircraft on the taxiway; maintain clear, concise communication with ATC.