Short-Field Takeoff and Landing

What is a Short-Field Takeoff?

Short-field takeoff procedures are utilized when an airplane must be operated from an area with either a short runway or the available takeoff area is restricted by obstructions. These operations require accurate preflight planning and precise aircraft control to obtain the maximum performance from the airplane.

Before-Takeoff Check

What is a Before-Takeoff Check?

The before-takeoff check is the systematic procedure for checking the engine, flight controls, systems, flight instruments, and avionics before flight. It is typically performed after taxiing to a run-up area near the departure end of the runway.

Engine Run-Up

Caution: While performing the engine run-up, the pilot must divide his or her attention between the inside and outside of the airplane.

• Position the airplane in an area with a firm, preferably paved surface free of rocks and other debris.
• Turn the airplane into the wind to improve airflow through the engine's cowling and prevent unwanted lift from strong gusts.
• Before stopping the airplane, allow it to roll straight ahead to ensure that the nosewheel or tailwheel aligns with the airplane's longitudinal axis.

• Set the mixture control as recommended for the engine run-up.
• Firmly apply the wheel brakes.
• Set the engine power to the recommended setting and ensure that:
• Engine temperatures and pressures are in their normal ranges.
• The operation of the constant speed propeller, if equipped, is acceptable.
• Magneto or Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) operation on single or dual ignition is acceptable.

• The vacuum system, if equipped, is within limits.
• The electrical system voltage is within the operating range, and the system shows the battery is charging.
• Carburetor heat, if equipped, is functioning, and any ice that may have formed during taxiing is purged.

Common Discrepancies Found During the Engine Run-up

• Fouled spark plug(s)
• Inoperative alternator or generator
• Carburetor heat mechanism malfunctions
• Insufficient brake pressure to keep the airplane stationary

Carburetor Heat Checks

Carburetor heat should be applied for at least 10 seconds during the engine run-up. A slight drop in RPM indicates a successful test. If ice is present, the RPM will decrease and then slightly increase. An excessive RPM drop could indicate an exhaust leak, causing excessively hot (less dense) air to enter the cylinders.

An additional test can be completed by reducing power to idle with carburetor heat still applied. The engine should continue to operate smoothly. This ensures the fuel/air ratio is not excessively rich at idle. An overly rich fuel ratio would cause the engine to run rough or shut down, indicating that maintenance is needed to adjust the throttle idle set screw.

Magneto Checks

During the engine run-up, verify the operation of each magneto by turning the other magneto OFF.

Considerations for the magneto check:

• Did the engine shut down?
• If one magneto is not operating, selecting the other will cause the engine to shut down.

• An RPM drop is normal when swapping from BOTH to any single magneto.
• No decrease on a single magneto indicates that one magneto is not operating or something is preventing the magneto from turning off.

• Limits are specified to ensure the magnetos will provide sufficient power in the event of a single magneto failure in flight.

• Differential checks ensure that both magnetos are operating at the same level of performance ("sharing the work").

• A 50–100°F EGT rise is normal when operating on a single magneto due to the lengthed duration of the fuel/air mixture combustion process.

Magneto Checks with a Constant-Speed Propeller

A constant-speed propeller must be in the governing range for the propeller governor to keep the RPM constant. At lower RPM settings, such as during the magneto check, the constant-speed propeller reacts like a fixed-pitch propeller.

Mixture Adjustment for High-Density Altitudes

When departing at density altitudes above 3,000' to 4,000' MSL, a normally aspirated engine cannot develop more than 75% of its maximum available power. A full-rich mixture setting isn't appropriate due to the decreased air density.

Fixed-Pitch Propeller Procedure

1. Apply full throttle and lean for maximum engine RPM.
2. Slightly enrichen the mixture to ensure the fuel/air ratio is rich-of-peak. The engine may need to be operated with a small amount of power to ensure smooth operation until takeoff.
3. After takeoff, increase the mixture to compensate for the increased engine RPM.

Constant-Speed Propeller Procedure

The method for leaning an engine with a constant-speed propeller depends on whether the airplane is equipped with an exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauge and fuel flow gauge.

With a Fuel Flow Gauge: Apply full throttle and set the fuel flow according to the settings provided in the checklist or AFM/POH.

Without an EGT: Apply full throttle and lean the mixture using the same procure as a fixed-pitch propeller, but use the engine's sound to determine when maximum power is being produced.

With an EGT: Apply full throttle and lean for the mixture for maximum EGT using the hottest cylinder as a reference. Then, enrich the mixture to reduce EGT by 75°F to 100°F. This setting produces the most power.

Flight Instrument Checks

General Instrument Checks

Avionics: Set with the appropriate frequencies, initial navigation sources and courses, autopilot preselects, and transponder codes.

Inclinometer (Slip-Skid Indicator):

• Full of fluid and has no air bubbles.
• The ball rests at its lowest point when stopped.
• The ball/brick moves freely towards the outside of turns (skidding turns) while taxiing.

Magnetic Compass:

• Full of fluid and turns freely.
• The correction card is in place and current.
• Accurate when compared against known headings.

Clock: Set to the correct time and running.

Outside Air Temperature (OAT): Indicates the air temperature accurately.

Pitot-Static System and Instrument Checks

Airspeed Indicator (ASI):

• Reads zero while stopped (unless strong winds are blowing).
• When beginning the takeoff, increases at an appropriate rate.

Altimeter:

• Set to the local altimeter setting reported by ATC or a weather broadcast.
• If the indication is off by more than 75' from the field elevation, the instrument should be referred to a certificated instrument repair station for recalibration. Consider that the elevation at the ramp and hangar areas might differ significantly from the surveyed field elevation.

• If a reported setting is not available, set the altimeter to the field elevation.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI):

• Indicates zero.
• If the VSI indicates anything other than zero, that indication can be referenced as the zero mark.
• If the VSI is mechanical, a small screwdriver can be used to make adjustments.

Alternate Static-Source: Ensure it can be opened if needed, then return to fully closed.

Pitot Tube Heater: Check by watching the ammeter when turned on or use the method specified
in the AFM/POH.

Vacuum System and Gyroscopic Instrument Checks

Suction Gauge:

• Shows an acceptable level of vacuum, which is typically between 4.8" and 5.2" Hg at 2,000 rpm. Refer to the AFM/POH for the manufacturer's values.
• If the suction gauge reads too low, the air drawn through the gyroscopic instruments may be insufficient in keeping them stable.
• Ensure mechanical gyroscopic instruments have adequate time to spool up to acceptable rpm.

Attitude Indicator: The horizon bar is erected to the horizontal position within five minutes and remains at the correct position for the airplane's attitude.

Directional Gyro:

• Agrees with the magnetic compass.
• There are no abnormal sounds as the gyro spools up.
• Indicates each turn in the proper direction while taxiing.
• If the directional gyro has a heading bug, set it to the runway heading or as assigned by ATC.
• Slaved gyrocompass should be checked for slaving action (switch between free and slaved modes).

Rate-of-Turn Indicator:

• Miniature aircraft level, ball approximately centered (level terrain).
• Indicates turns in the proper direction while taxiing.

Flight Control Checks

Check the flight controls throughout their entire operating range. This includes full aileron, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder deflection in all directions.

Constant-Speed Propeller Checks

Constant-speed propellers have additional checks to perform before takeoff, which may include:

• Propeller cycling/exercising
• Propeller governor system check (sometimes an optional procedure)
• Propeller feathering check [AMEL]

Exercising the Propeller Blade Changing Mechanism

Caution: Oil tends to thicken, especially in cold weather. If the propeller isn't exercised before takeoff, there is a possibility that the engine may overspeed when power is applied.

During the run-up, the propeller is operated slowly and smoothly through a complete cycle to:

• Verify the system is working correctly.
• Circulate warm oil through the propeller governor system.

To exercise the propeller:

1. Move the propeller control to the high pitch–low RPM position.
2. Allow the RPM to stabilize.
3. Move the propeller control back to the low pitch–high RPM position.

Propeller Governor System Check

To check the propeller governor:

1. Retard the propeller control drop of 100drop −200 RPM is observed.
2. Advance the throttle to increase manifold pressure slightly. Ensure the RPM remains steady.
3. Return the propeller to the takeoff position (high pitch–low RPM).

An alternative check of the propeller governor:

1. Start with the throttle at idle and with the propeller control fully aft (low pitch–high RPM).
2. Advance the throttle slowly. Ensure the RPM increases until the propeller governing range is reached.
3. In the propeller governing range, the RPM should no longer increase. Ensure the RPM remains steady while advancing the throttle slightly.

1. Return the throttle to idle, then move the propeller to the takeoff position (high pitch–low RPM).

Propeller Feathering Check [AMEL]

A functional check of the propeller feathering mechanism is typically conducted at an RPM near the bottom of the propeller governing range. The propeller control is briefly moved to the "feather" position to observe an RPM drop, then returned to the takeoff position (high pitch–low RPM).

Operational Considerations for the Engine Run-up

• Divide attention between the inside and outside of the airplane. If the parking brake slips, or if the application of the toe brakes is inadequate for the amount of power applied, the airplane could rapidly move forward and go unnoticed.

• Monitor the engine instruments that indicate temperature to prevent the engine from overheating. Prolonged ground operations may cause cylinder overheating long before there is an indication of rising oil temperature. The cowl flaps, if equipped, should be set according to the AFM/POH.

• The operation of an engine on one magneto should be kept to a minimum. The fuel/air mixture burns more slowly, even extending into the exhaust stroke, which increases the exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
• Avoid prolonged ground operation with carburetor heat ON as the air is unfiltered.

Takeoff Briefing

The takeoff briefing describes the planned course of action for normal and abnormal conditions during the takeoff phase.

The purpose of the takeoff briefing is to:

• Set expectations and reduce misunderstandings.
• Reduce the startle response to an actual emergency.
• Prepare the pilot to make accurate, go/no-go decisions.
• Minimize the risk of taking inappropriate actions during a malfunction or an emergency.

The pilot flying (PF) should always say the takeoff briefing out loud. Any assistance requested from the pilot monitoring (PM) should be stated.

If you fail to plan, you are planning to fail. Benjamin Franklin

Takeoff Briefing Format

Threats: What are the biggest challenges? Threats are identified first to stimulate thought (a threat-forward briefing). The crew then identifies countermeasures.

Normal Procedures: What is planned for this departure? This begins with the aircraft configuration and includes the sequence of events leading to the en route portion of the flight.

Emergency Procedures: What happens if an abnormal event or emergency is encountered? As the actions are recalled, hands should be placed on the appropriate controls to increase the likelihood that the procedures are carried out accurately.

Your Questions? The PM should be given a chance to ask questions.

Example Takeoff Briefing

Threats: "This is a nontowered airport with intersecting runways, so we will monitor the radio and increase our scan for traffic. The traffic display is set to display aircraft near the airport."

Normal Procedures: "[normal, short-field, or soft-field] takeoff procedures will be used from runway [runway in use]. Flaps will be set at [flap setting]. The wind is from the [direction and speed]. The rotation speed is [rotation speed]. The initial climb speed will be [climb speed]. The initial heading is [heading], and the initial altitude is [initial altitude in feet]. I will hand fly up to the cruise altitude."

Emergency Procedures [ASEL]:

• "I will reject the takeoff below V_R if any malfunction occurs or if no more than [70% of the takeoff speed] is reached by 50% of the runway length. If I reject the takeoff on the runway, I will apply appropriate braking and stop straight ahead."
• "For an engine failure after V_R and with runway remaining, I will lower the pitch to maintain airspeed, land, and apply maximum braking."

• "For an engine failure after V_R and with no runway remaining, I will lower the pitch to [best glide speed] and land in the most suitable area. No turns greater than 30° from the heading will be made before reaching [minimum turn back altitude]. If time permits, the fuel, ignition, and electrical systems will be switched OFF."

Emergency Procedures [AMEL]:

• "I will reject the takeoff below V_R for any malfunction, a loss of directional control, or if no more than [70% of the takeoff speed] is reached by 50% of the runway length. If I reject the takeoff on the runway, I will apply appropriate braking and stop straight ahead."
• "For an engine failure after V_R, the decision point to land or continue the climb will be at the landing gear retraction."

• "For an engine failure before the decision point," I will lower the pitch to a safe airspeed, maintain directional control, reduce both throttles, land, and apply maximum braking. If not enough runway remains to stop, the fuel, ignition, and electrical systems will be switched OFF."
• "For an engine failure after the decision point, I will:

• Pitch for blue-line, [V_YSE], and maintain directional control;
• Move the mixture, propeller, and throttle controls full forward;
• Retract the gear and flaps;
• Identify, verify, and feather the inoperative engine; and
• Climb to a safe altitude."

Your Questions: "Do you have anything to add?"

Common Errors During Before-Takeoff Checks

• Improper positioning of the airplane for wind conditions
• Acceptance of marginal engine performance
• Failure to check the flight controls for a full range of motion
• Allowing the airplane to roll during the engine run-up
• Blocking active taxiways or ramp areas during the checks
• Failure to use the appropriate checklist or skipping steps

How to Perform a Short-Field Takeoff

Setup

1. Set the flaps as recommended by the airplane manufacturer.
2. Ensure the aircraft is approaching the correct runway by observing the signs and markings.
3. Clear the area and receive an ATC clearance if necessary.
4. Taxi into the takeoff position utilizing the maximum available takeoff area.
5. Align the airplane on the center of the runway. Verify the heading indicator is aligned correctly.

1. Check the windsock. Position the flight controls for the wind conditions.
2. Complete the before-takeoff checklist.

Takeoff Roll

1. Apply the brakes to keep the airplane stationary while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power.
2. Check that all engine instruments are satisfactory (in the green) and then release the brakes.
3. Use the rudder pedals to maintain directional control. Right rudder pressure may be necessary to keep the airplane aligned with the runway centerline after applying power.

1. Verify that the airspeed indicator is operating correctly.

Liftoff

1. Liftoff at the airplane manufacturer's recommended airspeed for a short-field takeoff. Apply back pressure more aggressively than used during a normal takeoff.
2. Establish a pitch attitude that will accelerate the airplane to and maintain V_X.

Maximum Performance Climb

1. Maintain V_X until the obstacle is cleared, or until the airplane is 50' above the surface.
2. Retract the landing gear, if appropriate, and flaps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by the manufacturer.

1. After clearing the obstacle, or once the airplane is 50' above the surface in the absence of an obstacle, establish the pitch attitude that will allow the airplane to accelerate to and maintain V_Y.
2. Maintain takeoff power until reaching a safe maneuvering altitude.
3. Complete the appropriate climb checklist.

Engine and Instrument Checks During Takeoff

"Power Set":

• With a fixed-pitch propeller, the RPM is initially less than the red line but increases as the airplane accelerates.
• With a constant-speed propeller, the tachometer should read within 40 RPM of the red line as soon as full power is applied. Manifold pressure will roughly equal atmospheric pressure with a normally-aspirated engine.

"T&P's in the Green": Engine temperatures and pressures should be in their normal ranges.

"Airspeed Alive": The takeoff roll is the pilot's first opportunity to check the airspeed indicator for proper operation. Indications typically begin as the airplane accelerates through 20–30 knots.

Safety Considerations for Short-Field Takeoffs

• The performance section of the AFM/POH should be used to obtain the power setting, flap setting, airspeed, and procedures.
• In some airplanes, a deviation of 5 knots from the recommended speed results in a significant reduction in climb performance.

• Some airplanes have a natural tendency to liftoff well before reaching V_X. It may be necessary to reduce pitch attitude in ground effect so that the airplane can accelerate to V_X with the wheels just clear of the runway surface.

Common Errors for Short-Field Takeoffs

Setup:

• Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts before takeoff
• Flaps not set as recommended
• Failure to adequately clear the area before taxiing into position on the active runway
• Failure to align the airplane on the center of the runway
• Failure to position the airplane for maximum utilization of the available takeoff area

• Failure to hold brakes until full power is applied and engine instruments are checked

Takeoff Roll:

• Abrupt use of the throttle
• Failure to check engine instruments after applying takeoff power
• Failure to anticipate the airplane's left turning tendency on initial acceleration
• Inappropriate removal of the hand from the throttle
• Applying the brakes to assist in directional control during the takeoff roll
• Fixation on the airspeed indicator

Liftoff:

• Failure to attain a proper liftoff attitude
• Premature lift-off resulting in high drag
• Continuing the takeoff roll after liftoff speed
• Dropping a wing (usually the left) immediately after liftoff due to inadequate rudder pressure and limiting the visual scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane

Maximum Performance Climb:

• Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor resulting in a sideslip
• Failure to maintain the best angle-of-climb airspeed (V_X)
• Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying during climb-out, resulting in "chasing" the airspeed indicator
• Fixation on the airspeed indicator during the initial climb
• Premature retraction of landing gear and/or wing flaps

• Failure to use or improper use of the appropriate checklist

Airman Certification Standards for Short-Field Takeoffs

Obstacle Clearance Speed:

• SPT and PVT: Recommended airspeed, or V_X, +10/-5 knots, until the obstacle is cleared, or 50' AGL
• COM: Recommended airspeed, or V_X, +5/-0 knots, until the obstacle is cleared or 50' AGL

Climb Speed:

• SPT and PVT: After clearing the obstacle, accelerate to and maintain V_Y, +10/-5 knots
• COM: After clearing the obstacle, accelerate to and maintain V_Y, ±5 knots

What is a Short-Field Landing?

Short-field landing procedures are utilized when an airplane must be operated into an area with either a short runway or the available takeoff area is restricted by obstructions. These operations require pilots to fly a stabilized approach that clears obstacles, results in little or no floating, and permits the airplane to stop in the shortest possible distance.

How to Perform a Short-Field Landing

Setup

1. Enter the traffic pattern using a recommended procedure or as directed by ATC.
2. On the downwind leg, maintain the manufacturer's recommended airspeed, or in its absence, 1.5 V_SO.
3. Survey the intended landing area. Evaluate the location and size of obstacles to be cleared.
4. Identify a suitable touchdown point. Consider the wind, landing surface, and obstructions.
5. Complete the before-landing checklist.

Approach

1. Abeam the touchdown point, reduce power, partially extend the flaps, and lower the landing gear, as applicable.
2. Begin a descent at approximately 500 FPM. Trim as necessary.
3. The downwind should be extended to allow for proper stabilization on final approach. At an approximate 30° point from the landing threshold, clear for traffic and turn base.

1. On the base leg, maintain the manufacturer's recommended airspeed, or in its absence, 1.4 V_SO.
2. Extend the flaps further, if applicable, and trim if necessary.
3. Lead the turn to final to roll out on the runway extended centerline. The airplane should be approximately 3/4 to 1 mile from the runway threshold at approximately 500' above the touchdown point.

1. On final approach, extend the flaps to the landing setting. Trim as necessary.
2. Maintain a stabilized approach at the manufacturer's recommended airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 V_S0. The descent angle will be steeper than a normal approach.

Round Out (Flare)

1. Make smooth, timely, and correct control applications during the roundout and touchdown. A minimum amount of power will be necessary to put the airplane into the flare.

Touchdown

1. Touchdown smoothly at the minimum control airspeed, at the specified point, with no side drift, and minimum float. The airplane's longitudinal axis should be aligned with and over the runway centerline.
2. Do not let the nosewheel touch until both main wheels are on the ground.

1. Apply the wheel brakes and back pressure on the pitch control to stop in the shortest possible distance consistent with safety.
2. Some manufacturers recommend retracting the flaps on the rollout to reduce the wings' lift.

After-Landing Roll

1. Increase crosswind control inputs as the airplane slows.
2. Slow to a normal taxi speed before attempting to make a turn off of the runway.
3. Clear the runway by taxiing the airplane past the runway's hold short line.
4. Complete the after-landing checklist.

Safety Considerations for Short-Field Landings

• In the region of reversed command, a simultaneous increase in pitch and power is needed to decrease the rate of descent.
• The initiation of the roundout must be judged accurately to avoid flying into the ground or stalling prematurely and sinking rapidly.
• Prematurely reducing power to idle during the round out may result in hard landing.

• When on final approach, visually verify that the runway is clear of traffic and obstructions.
• There is a significant risk of retracting the landing gear instead of the wing flaps when flap retraction is attempted on the landing rollout.

Common Errors for Short-Field Landings

Setup:

• Failure to use or improper use of the appropriate checklist
• Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
• Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the proper time or in the proper sequence
• Failure to review the airport diagram for situational awareness and to help avoid a runway incursion after landing

Approach:

• Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg
• Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto final approach
• Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension
• Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
• Failure to recognize the need for a go-around
• A final approach that necessitates an overly steep approach and high sink rate

• Inappropriate reduction of power after crossing the obstacle, resulting in a high rate of descent at a slow airspeed

Round Out (Flare):

• Inappropriate removal of the hand from the throttle
• Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone
• Focusing too close to the airplane, resulting in an excessively high roundout
• Focusing too far from the airplane, resulting in an excessively low roundout
• Rounding out too late, resulting in a hard landing

• Rounding out too high, resulting in an eventual high sink rate and a hard landing
• "Ballooning" or "floating" down the runway due to excessive airspeed on final approach
• Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inability to flare properly and landing hard

Touchdown:

• Failure to touch down on the runway centerline
• Failure to touch down with the longitudinal axis aligned with the runway
• Touching down before attaining a proper landing attitude
• Releasing control pressure as soon as the airplane touches down
• Bouncing on touchdown due to improper airplane attitude or an excessive rate of sink

After-Landing Roll:

• Poor directional control after touchdown
• Improper use of brakes:
• Not utilizing aerodynamic braking
• Excessive use of wheel brakes, resulting in skidding
• Not slowing the airplane to an appropriate speed before attempting a turn

Airman Certification Standards for Short-Field Landings

Approach Speed:

• SPT and PVT: As recommended, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 V_S0, +10/-5 knots with gust factor applied
• COM: As recommended, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 V_S0, ±5 knots with gust factor applied

Touchdown Point:

• SPT and PVT: At a proper pitch attitude within 200' beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, minimum float, and with the airplane's longitudinal axis aligned with and over the center of the runway

• COM: At a proper pitch attitude, within 100' beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, minimum float, and with the airplane's longitudinal axis aligned with and over the center of the runway

Stabilized Approach Criteria

Stabilized Approach Concept

A stabilized approach is characterized by a constant-angle, constant-rate of descent approach profile ending near the touchdown point, where the landing maneuver begins. Slight and infrequent adjustments are all that's needed to maintain a stabilized approach.

Stabilized Approach Criteria

C-FLAPS

• Checklists: Complete
• Flightpath: Established (±1 dot of deflection horizontally and vertically)
• Landing Configuration: Set
• Airspeed: Established (+10/-5 knots)
• Power: Set
• Sink Rate: No greater than 1,000 FPM

Minimum Stabilization Heights

The recommended minimum stabilization heights are:

• 300' above the airport elevation in VMC for a small airplane in the traffic pattern.
• 500′ above the airport elevation in VMC.
• 1,000′ above the airfield elevation in IMC.
• For a circling approach, MDA or 500′ above the airport elevation, whichever is lower.

Go-Around for Safety

The objective is to be stabilized before reaching the predetermined minimum stabilization height. If the aircraft is not stabilized at the minimum stabilization height or becomes unstabilized below the minimum stabilization height, a go-around should be initiated.

Energy Management Matrix