Short-Field Takeoff and Landing

What is a Short-Field Takeoff?

Short-field takeoff procedures are utilized when an airplane must be operated from an area with either a short runway or the available takeoff area is restricted by obstructions. These operations require accurate preflight planning and precise aircraft control to obtain the maximum performance from the airplane.

How to Perform a Short-Field Takeoff

Setup

1. Set the flaps as recommended by the airplane manufacturer.
2. Ensure the aircraft is approaching the correct runway by observing the signs and markings.
3. Clear the area and receive an ATC clearance if necessary.
4. Taxi into the takeoff position utilizing the maximum available takeoff area.
5. Align the airplane on the center of the runway. Verify the heading indicator is aligned correctly.

6. Check the windsock. Position the flight controls for the wind conditions.
7. Complete the before-takeoff checklist.

Takeoff Roll

1. Apply the brakes to keep the airplane stationary while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power.
2. Check that all engine instruments are satisfactory (in the green) and then release the brakes.
3. Use the rudder pedals to maintain directional control. Right rudder pressure may be necessary to keep the airplane aligned with the runway centerline after applying power.

4. Verify that the airspeed indicator is operating correctly.

Liftoff

1. Liftoff at the airplane manufacturer’s recommended airspeed for a short-field takeoff. Apply back pressure more aggressively than used during a normal takeoff.
2. Establish a pitch attitude that will accelerate the airplane to and maintain V_X.

Maximum Performance Climb

1. Maintain V_X until the obstacle is cleared, or until the airplane is 50′ above the surface.
2. Retract the landing gear, if appropriate, and flaps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by the manufacturer.

3. After clearing the obstacle, or once the airplane is 50′ above the surface in the absence of an obstacle, establish the pitch attitude that will allow the airplane to accelerate to and maintain V_Y.
4. Maintain takeoff power until reaching a safe maneuvering altitude.
5. Complete the appropriate climb checklist.

Engine and Instrument Checks During Takeoff

“Power Set”:

• With a fixed-pitch propeller, the RPM is initially less than the red line but increases as the airplane accelerates.
• With a constant-speed propeller, the tachometer should read within 40 RPM of the red line as soon as full power is applied. Manifold pressure will roughly equal atmospheric pressure with a normally-aspirated engine.

“T&P’s in the Green”: Engine temperatures and pressures should be in their normal ranges.

“Airspeed Alive”: Check the airspeed indicator for proper operation. Indications typically begin as the airplane accelerates through 20–30 knots.

Takeoff Performance

The most critical conditions of takeoff performance are combinations of:

• High gross weight
• High-density altitude
• Contaminated runways
• Tailwinds
• Uphill slopes
• Short runways

Rules of thumb:

• 50/70 Rule: Abort the takeoff if no more than 70% of the takeoff speed is reached by 50% of the runway length.
• 50/50 Rule: As a safety margin, add 50% to the planned takeoff distance over a 50-foot obstacle.

Wind

Rules of thumb:

• A headwind that is 10% of the takeoff airspeed reduces the takeoff distance by approximately 19%.
• A headwind that is 50% of the takeoff airspeed reduces the takeoff distance by approximately 75%.
• A tailwind that is 10% of the takeoff airspeed increases the takeoff distance by approximately 21%.

Density Altitude

An increase in density altitude:

• Requires a greater takeoff speed (true airspeed is higher than it would be at sea level).
• Decreases acceleration due to decreased thrust.

Safety Considerations for Short-Field Takeoffs

• The performance section of the AFM/POH should be used to obtain the power setting, flap setting, airspeed, and procedures.
• In some airplanes, a deviation of 5 knots from the recommended speed results in a significant reduction in climb performance.

• Some airplanes have a natural tendency to liftoff well before reaching V_X. It may be necessary to reduce pitch attitude in ground effect so that the airplane can accelerate to V_X with the wheels just clear of the runway surface.

Common Errors for Short-Field Takeoffs

Setup:

• Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts before takeoff
• Flaps not set as recommended
• Failure to adequately clear the area before taxiing into position on the active runway
• Failure to align the airplane on the center of the runway
• Failure to position the airplane for maximum utilization of the available takeoff area

• Failure to hold brakes until full power is applied and engine instruments are checked

Takeoff Roll:

• Abrupt use of the throttle
• Failure to check engine instruments after applying takeoff power
• Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turning tendency on initial acceleration
• Inappropriate removal of the hand from the throttle
• Applying the brakes to assist in directional control during the takeoff roll
• Fixation on the airspeed indicator

Liftoff:

• Failure to attain a proper liftoff attitude
• Premature lift-off resulting in high drag
• Continuing the takeoff roll after liftoff speed
• Dropping a wing (usually the left) immediately after liftoff due to inadequate rudder pressure and limiting the visual scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane

Maximum Performance Climb:

• Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor resulting in a sideslip
• Failure to maintain the best angle-of-climb airspeed (V_X)
• Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying during climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed indicator
• Fixation on the airspeed indicator during the initial climb
• Premature retraction of landing gear and/or wing flaps

• Failure to use or improper use of the appropriate checklist

What is a Short-Field Landing?

Short-field landing procedures are utilized when an airplane must be operated into an area with either a short runway or the available takeoff area is restricted by obstructions. These operations require pilots to fly a stabilized approach that clears obstacles, results in little or no floating, and permits the airplane to stop in the shortest possible distance.

Stabilized Approach Concept

A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant-angle glide path toward a predetermined point on the landing runway. It is based on the pilot’s judgment of certain visual clues and depends on maintaining a constant final descent airspeed and configuration.

A stabilized approach provides:

• More time to monitor ATC communications and weather conditions.
• Defined support for deciding to land or to go around.
• Landing performance consistent with published performance.

Aiming Point Versus Touchdown Point

An airplane descending on final approach at a constant rate and airspeed travels in a straight line towards a spot on the ground ahead, commonly called the aiming point.

To the pilot, the aiming point appears to be stationary. It does not appear to move up or down on the windscreen. Objects in front of and beyond the aiming point appear to move as the distance is closed, and they appear to move in opposite directions.

If the airplane maintains a constant glide path without flaring, it will strike the ground at the aiming point. However, the airplane will not touch down at the aiming point because some float does occurs.

Taking into account float during round out, the pilot can predict the touchdown point within a few feet. The actual location of the touchdown should be approximately 1,000′ down the runway and within the first third of the runway.

Pitch and Power Control

Airspeed and altitude are controlled in flight through a combination of pitch and power (thrust) adjustments. Through experience, pilots learn to lead with the control that provides the most responsiveness so that their flying becomes more precise.

Power Conditions

All phases of flight can be divided into two basic power conditions: fixed-power and adjustable-power. An adjustable-power condition exits when power is both variable and available. In all other situations, power remains constant (fixed) either by choice or due to an engine failure.

Examples of Fixed and Adjustable-Power Conditions

Fixed-Power Conditions

Most phases of flight occur with a fixed-power setting. With power fixed, the pitch control manages altitude, airspeed, or vertical speed (climb or descent rate), as appropriate.

Examples of fixed-power conditions:

• Cruise Flight: Pitch controls altitude.
• Climbs and Descents: Pitch controls airspeed or vertical speed, as desired.
• Power-Off Glide: Pitch controls airspeed.
• Traffic Pattern: Pitch controls altitude on downwind. If power is fixed in the descent, pitch controls airspeed (techniques may vary).

Although small, occasional power adjustments may be needed in these phases of flight, power is still considered “fixed.”

Adjustable-Power Conditions

The pitch control is used to adjust the flight parameter that demands the quickest response and the most precision. The airplane responds quickly to pitch control inputs because the angle of attack (AOA) on the elevator (or stabilator) changes instantly. Adjusting power generally takes longer to have a noticeable effect, especially with turbine engines, which take several seconds to spool up.

Examples of adjustable-power conditions:

• Instrument Approach (All Airplanes): Pitch controls vertical speed and glide path. Power controls airspeed.
• Visual Approach and Landing (Small Airplanes):
• Option One: Pitch controls vertical speed. Power controls airspeed.
• Option Two: Pitch controls airspeed. Power controls vertical speed.
• At Intermediate Altitudes or Maneuvering: Pitch controls altitude. Power controls airspeed.

• Maneuvering During Slow Flight: Pitch controls airspeed. Power controls altitude.

Trade-Offs

Some situations can be corrected with a trade-off (exchanging altitude for airspeed and vice versa). For example, if the airplane is both high and slow, the pilot can leave the power alone and pitch down.

The Effect of Pitch and Power Changes During an Approach

The following table describes the effect of moving a single control (pitch or power) during an approach to a landing.

Key Takeaways:

• The movement of a single control affects both speed and altitude (glide path).
• Power primarily changes the total energy (speed and height), while pitch changes the distribution of that energy (“trade-offs”).
• To change only speed or altitude, a mix of pitch and power inputs is required. The right blend of both cancels out the undesirable change.

• Large deviations from the desired airspeed and/or glide path require a combination of inputs.

The “Pitch Versus Power” Debate

Small, reciprocating engines react quickly to power inputs, so there is little difference in the response time of the pitch and power controls. This opens up room for a debate over which control should be used to manage airspeed, especially during a visual approach and landing.

Considerations for choosing a technique:

• Beginning pilots can be overwhelmed by “too much information.” They should not have to question what applies in a given situation.
• FAA handbooks recommend using pitch to control airspeed while maneuvering during slow flight (in the region of reversed command). An energy management matrix is provided for approaches and landings.

• During stall training, learners are taught to immediately lower the AOA with pitch (pitch controls airspeed).
• Autopilots maintain the glide path using pitch controls during an approach. Auto-throttles monitor and control airspeed.
• Large and turbine-powered airplanes require a certain technique (power controls airspeed) due to their inertia and slow power response.

How to Perform a Short-Field Landing

Setup

1. Enter the traffic pattern using a recommended procedure or as directed by ATC.
2. On the downwind leg, maintain the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed, or in its absence, 1.5 V_SO.
3. Survey the intended landing area. Evaluate the location and size of obstacles to be cleared.
4. Identify a suitable touchdown point. Consider the wind, landing surface, and obstructions.
5. Complete the before-landing checklist.

Approach

1. Abeam the touchdown point, reduce power, partially extend the flaps, and lower the landing gear, as applicable.
2. Begin a descent at approximately 500 FPM. Trim as necessary.
3. The downwind should be extended to allow for proper stabilization on final approach. At an approximate 30° point from the landing threshold, clear for traffic and turn base.

4. On the base leg, maintain the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed, or in its absence, 1.4 V_SO.
5. Extend the flaps further, if applicable, and trim if necessary.
6. Lead the turn to final to roll out on the runway extended centerline. The airplane should be approximately 3/4 to 1 mile from the runway threshold at approximately 500′ above the touchdown point.

7. On final approach, extend the flaps to the landing setting. Trim as necessary.
8. Maintain a stabilized approach at the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 V_S0. The descent angle will be steeper than a normal approach.

Round Out (Flare)

1. Make smooth, timely, and correct control applications during the roundout and touchdown. A minimum amount of power will be necessary to put the airplane into the flare.

Touchdown

1. Touchdown smoothly at the minimum control airspeed, at the specified point, with no side drift, and minimum float. The airplane’s longitudinal axis should be aligned with and over the runway centerline.
2. Do not let the nosewheel touch until both main wheels are on the ground.

3. Apply the wheel brakes and back pressure on the pitch control to stop in the shortest possible distance consistent with safety.
4. Some manufacturers recommend retracting the flaps on the rollout to reduce the wings’ lift.

After-Landing Roll

1. Increase crosswind control inputs as the airplane slows.
2. Slow to a normal taxi speed before attempting to make a turn off of the runway.
3. Clear the runway by taxiing the airplane past the runway’s hold short line.
4. Complete the after-landing checklist.

Landing Performance

The most critical conditions of landing performance are combinations of:

• High gross weight
• High-density altitude
• Contaminated runways
• Tailwinds
• Downhill slopes
• Less than maximum landing flaps

• Short runways

Rules of thumb:

• Increase the landing distance by 50% for a wet runway.
• Increase the approach speed by 20% if ice is on the wings.
• For every knot above the recommended approach airspeed at the runway threshold, the touchdown point is 100′ further down the runway.

Aerodynamic Drag

Aerodynamic drag can be used in the early stages of the landing roll. Unlike wheel brakes and tires, which suffer from continuous hard use, aerodynamic drag is free and does not wear out with use.

The use of aerodynamic drag is most beneficial for decelerating to 60% to 70% of the touchdown speed. At slower speeds, aerodynamic drag becomes less effective. Wheel braking must be increased to produce continued deceleration.

Weight

The minimum landing distance varies in direct proportion to the gross weight. An increase in gross weight requires a faster approach speed and requires more effort to decelerate to a stop after landing.

A 10% increase in gross weight causes:

• An estimated 5% increase in landing velocity.
• An estimated 10% increase in landing distance.

Density Altitude

An increase in density altitude increases the landing speed. The aircraft at altitude lands at the same indicated airspeed (IAS) as at sea level, but the true airspeed (TAS) is greater because of the reduced density.

Because a given IAS corresponds to a higher TAS at higher density altitudes, pilots are sometimes “tricked” by visual cues and fly slower than they should.

The approximate increase in landing distance with altitude is approximately 3.5% for each 1,000′ of altitude. At 5,000′, the required landing distance is 16% greater than at sea level.

Excessive Airspeed and Wind

Excessive speed upon touchdown:

• Places a greater load on the brakes because of the additional kinetic energy.
• Increases lift in the normal ground attitude after landing, which reduces braking effectiveness.

The stopping distance of an object (assuming the same braking force) is directly proportional to its kinetic energy. If the kinetic energy quadruples, the stopping distance also quadruples.

Rules of thumb:

• An increase in the approach speed by 10% increases the landing distance by 20%.
• For every 10 knots of tailwind, increase the landing distance by at least 21%.

Approach Speed Calculations

Sometimes variations in the normal approach speed should be made to compensate for changes in weight and gusty wind conditions.

Normal Approach Speed: In the absence of the manufacturer’s recommended approach airspeed, a speed equal to 1.3 V_SO should be used.

 Example Calculation
58 VS0 × 1.3 = 75 KIAS

Variations in Weight: Manufacturers typically publish the approach speed at the airplane’s maximum gross weight. The approach speed for a lower operating weight can be approximated with the following formula; however, the manufacturer’s published speeds and recommendations should be followed.

VREF1 = VREF2 × √(Current Weight ÷ Maximum Gross Weight)

• V_REF1 is the calculated approach speed for the current weight.
• V_REF2 is the AFM/POH approach speed at the maximum gross weight.

 Example Calculation
2,000 Actual Weight ÷ 2,500 Gross Weight = .80 
√.80 = .894
75 KIAS X .894 = 67 KIAS

Wind Gust Factor: Slightly higher than normal airspeeds provide more positive control during strong horizontal wind gusts. One procedure is to use the normal approach speed plus one-half of the wind gust factor.

 Example Calculation
"Wind 180° at 10 knots gusting to 20 knots."
½ of the 10 knot gust factor = 5 KIAS
67 + 5 = 72 KIAS

Safety Considerations for Short-Field Landings

• In the region of reversed command, a simultaneous increase in pitch and power is needed to decrease the rate of descent.
• The initiation of the roundout must be judged accurately to avoid flying into the ground or stalling prematurely and sinking rapidly.
• Prematurely reducing power to idle during the round out may result in hard landing.

• When on final approach, visually verify that the runway is clear of traffic and obstructions.
• There is a significant risk of retracting the landing gear instead of the wing flaps when flap retraction is attempted on the landing rollout.

Common Errors for Short-Field Landings

Setup:

• Failure to use or improper use of the appropriate checklist
• Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
• Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the proper time or in the proper sequence
• Failure to review the airport diagram for situational awareness and to help avoid a runway incursion after landing

Approach:

• Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg
• Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto final approach
• Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension
• Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
• Failure to recognize the need for a go-around
• A final approach that necessitates an overly steep approach and high sink rate

• Inappropriate reduction of power after crossing the obstacle, resulting in a high rate of descent at a slow airspeed

Round Out (Flare):

• Inappropriate removal of the hand from the throttle
• Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone
• Focusing too close to the airplane, resulting in an excessively high roundout
• Focusing too far from the airplane, resulting in an excessively low roundout
• Rounding out too late, resulting in a hard landing

• Rounding out too high, resulting in an eventual high sink rate and a hard landing
• “Ballooning” or “floating” down the runway due to excessive airspeed on final approach
• Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inability to flare properly and landing hard

Touchdown:

• Failure to touch down on the runway centerline
• Failure to touch down with the longitudinal axis aligned with the runway
• Touching down before attaining a proper landing attitude
• Releasing control pressure as soon as the airplane touches down
• Bouncing on touchdown due to improper airplane attitude or an excessive rate of sink

After-Landing Roll:

• Poor directional control after touchdown
• Improper use of brakes:
• Not utilizing aerodynamic braking
• Excessive use of wheel brakes, resulting in skidding
• Not slowing the airplane to an appropriate speed before attempting a turn
• Inappropriate movement of controls or switches before exiting the runway

• Not following manufacturer’s procedure for flap position changes after touchdown

Risk Examples for Airport Operations

Collision Hazards Related to Airport Operations

• High-density traffic at a non-towered airport increases the likelihood of mid-air collisions; remain alert, clear the area before turning, and make radio calls.
• Simultaneous operations on parallel or intersecting runways increase the risk of runway incursions and collisions; maintain situational awareness and comply with ATC instructions or make radio calls.

• Incorrect traffic pattern entry procedures can cause conflicts with aircraft already in the pattern; follow standard traffic pattern entry procedures.

Low-Altitude Maneuvering, Including Stall, Spin, or CFIT

• Power lines, towers, and rapidly rising terrain increase the potential for CFIT; avoid unnecessary maneuvers near the ground.
• Lack of airspeed or altitude awareness can lead to inadvertent CFIT, stall, spin, or loss of control; increase focus and awareness as altitude or airspeed decreases.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

• Distractions, task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, and disorientation increase the likelihood of errors, delayed or missed actions, and the inability to process information accurately and timely; minimize non-essential activities, follow the “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate” prioritization, and stay focused.

Windshear and Wake Turbulence During Takeoffs and Landings

• Windshear can cause sudden changes in wind direction or speed, potentially leading to stalls; maintain a safe speed for the conditions.
• Wake turbulence can result in a loss of control; maintain proper spacing from preceding aircraft.

Selection of Runway for Takeoffs and Landings

• Runway length may be inadequate for a safe takeoff or landing; select the most suitable runway based on preflight performance planning.
• Surface conditions can reduce performance on soft or uneven surfaces; consider the surface condition during preflight performance planning.

• Wind direction can present crosswind challenges or tailwind landings; select the most suitable runway based on the current winds.
• Obstacles can present a potential for collision; ensure a clear departure or approach path.

Effects of the Environment and Runway Surface/Condition

• Crosswind can cause difficulty in maintaining directional control and runway excursions; apply appropriate crosswind correction techniques.
• Windshear can result in loss of control and increased takeoff or landing distance; maintain a safe speed for the conditions.
• Tailwind increases takeoff or landing distance and runway excursions; align with the wind to minimize tailwind impacts.

• Wake turbulence can result in a loss of control; maintain safe separation from preceding aircraft.
• Surface conditions can make it difficult to maintain directional control or increase takeoff or landing distance; ensure the runway surface is suitable.

Planning for Abnormal Operations During Takeoff

• Not planning for a rejected takeoff can result in a delayed response and runway excursions; review and brief emergency procedures before takeoff.
• Not planning for an engine failure after liftoff can lead to a delayed response, loss of control, and an inability to make a safe landing; stay vigilant and prepared to execute emergency procedures.

Planning for Abnormal Operations During Landing

• Not planning for a go-around/rejected landing can result in a delayed response, loss of control, and getting too low or slow to conduct a safe go-around; stay vigilant and prepared to execute a go-around/rejected landing.
• Not planning for LAHSO increases the likelihood of conflicts and pilot deviations; calculate the required landing distance and ask for extra time if necessary.

Airman Certification Standards for Short-Field Takeoffs

Obstacle Clearance Speed:

• SPT and PVT: Recommended airspeed, or V_X, +10/-5 knots, until the obstacle is cleared, or 50′ AGL
• COM and CFI: Recommended airspeed, or V_X, +5 knots, until the obstacle is cleared or 50′ AGL

Climb Speed:

• SPT and PVT: Accelerate to and maintain V_Y, +10/-5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude
• COM and CFI: Accelerate to and maintain V_Y, ±5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude

Airman Certification Standards for Short-Field Landings

Approach Speed:

• SPT and PVT: As recommended, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 V_S0, +10/-5 knots with gust factor applied
• COM and CFI: As recommended, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 V_S0, ±5 knots with gust factor applied

Touchdown Point:

• SPT and PVT: At a proper pitch attitude within 200′ beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, minimum float, and with the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the center of the runway

• COM and CFI: At a proper pitch attitude, within 100′ beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, minimum float, and with the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the center of the runway

Stabilized Approach Criteria

Stabilized Approach Concept

A stabilized approach is characterized by a constant-angle, constant-rate of descent approach profile ending near the touchdown point, where the landing maneuver begins. Slight and infrequent adjustments are all that are needed to maintain a stabilized approach.

Stabilized Approach Criteria

C-FLAPS

• Checklists and briefings: Complete
• Flightpath: Established (±1 dot of deflection horizontally and vertically)
• Landing Configuration: Set
• Airspeed: Established (+10/-5 knots)
• Power: Set for the airplane configuration
• Sink Rate: No greater than 1,000 FPM

Minimum Stabilization Heights

The recommended minimum stabilization heights are:

• 300′ above the airport elevation in VMC for a small airplane in the traffic pattern.
• 500′ above the airport elevation in VMC.
• 1,000′ above the airfield elevation in IMC.
• For a circling approach, MDA or 500′ above the airport elevation, whichever is lower.

Go-Around for Safety

The objective is to stabilize the aircraft before reaching the predetermined minimum stabilization height. If the aircraft is not stabilized at the minimum stabilization height or becomes unstabilized below it, a go-around should be initiated.

Energy Management Matrix