The PIC is required to:
Elements of a passenger “SAFETY” briefing:
Other items to consider:
Checklists act as a systematic guide, ensuring that all procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and nothing is omitted. Furthermore, they standardize flight operations, thereby minimizing the chances of human error.
Many checklists differentiate the performance of checklist items by using the terms “pilot flying” (PF) and “pilot monitoring/pilot not flying” (PM/PNF) to avoid confusion. The PF refers to the pilot manipulating the controls, regardless of which seat he or she occupies.
The proper use of a checklist depends on the task being conducted. In some situations, using the checklist would be unsafe or impractical, especially in a single-pilot operation. In this case, reviewing the checklist after the elements have been accomplished would be appropriate.
Challenge-And-Response (Do-List): A typical checklist has two columns. The left column shows the switch or control that needs to be moved or verified (the challenge), and the right column shows the action that needs to be taken with the switch or control (the response). Each challenge is read and is followed by the necessary task or check being accomplished. A response is made only after verifying the proper configuration or condition exists.
Flow (Do-Verify): A mental “flow” check can be used in high workload situations. The flow is a systematic scan of the instrument panel. It shows the pilot what items to consider, not what to do. After completing the flow, the checklist is read to verify that all items have been completed.
Pilots may purchase or adapt checklists to streamline operations and incorporate personal preferences. Any changes must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure they align with the manufacturer’s recommendations and aircraft limitations.
Adapting emergency checklists is generally not recommended due to the critical nature of these procedures. Improperly adapted checklists can lead to missed steps, procedural errors, and reduced safety margins during critical situations.
VFR: It is not FAA policy to violate 14 CFR Part 91 pilots for having outdated charts in the aircraft. However, if an out-of-date chart, no chart, or an out-of-date database contributes to an accident, then that information could be used in any enforcement action.
IFR: Published instrument procedures and routes incorporated by reference into 14 CFR Parts 95 Part 97 are “law.” They are effective only during the dates specified on the chart.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of a network of satellites managed by the U.S. Air Force. The U.S. is committed to maintaining the availability of at least 24 operational GPS satellites. To ensure this, 30 or more satellites travel in semi-synchronous (12-hour) orbits around the Earth.
Non-GPS/WAAS Receivers: RAIM availability must be confirmed for the intended route of flight.
RAIM Unavailable: In situations where RAIM is predicted to be unavailable, the flight must rely on other approved navigation equipment, reroute to where RAIM is available, delay departure, or cancel the flight.
WAAS Unavailable: Outside the WAAS coverage or if the WAAS fails, GPS/WAAS equipment reverts to GPS-only operation and satisfies the requirements for basic GPS equipment. Operators must verify GPS RAIM availability.
Without RAIM: Any required alternate airport must have an available instrument approach procedure that does not require the use of GPS.
With RAIM and FDE (no WAAS): Pilots may plan to use a GPS-based IAP at either the destination or the alternate airport, but not at both locations. A preflight RAIM prediction must confirm availability at the airport where the RNAV (GPS) approach will be flown.
With RAIM, pilots may plan for alternate airport minimums using:
With WAAS: Pilots may plan to use any instrument approach procedure authorized for use with their WAAS avionics at the destination and the required alternate with the following restrictions.
A place for everything and everything in its place.
Benjamin Franklin
Before starting the engine, items should be arranged to be secure and accessible. Essential equipment should be within easy reach.
These seemingly small actions can reduce workload and enhance safety. Since everyone has a different way of organizing themselves, the optimal arrangement comes through experimentation.
Effective automation management allows the pilot to assess, detect, and correct errors; thus, it helps prevent accidents.
Automation should be managed actively rather than passively (“set and forget”). Active automation management enhances situational awareness and helps to identify automation failures.
To actively manage the automation, pilots must:
Managing the autopilot means knowing which modes are engaged and which are armed to engage.
Autopilot management errors can be reduced by:
Caution: Anytime the autopilot is disconnected, the pilot should have a firm grip on the controls to counter any unexpected trim forces.
Humans are not well suited for monitoring automated systems. Extended periods of performing trivial tasks often lead to daydreaming or complacency.
Monitoring errors can be reduced by:
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
ADM = What pilots intend to do based on the information they have.
1. Define the Problem: A problem is perceived by the senses and recognized through insight and experience. An objective analysis of all available information is used to determine the exact nature and severity of the problem.
2. Choose a Course of Action: The pilot determines the actions that may be taken to resolve the situation in the time available. The expected outcome of each action should be considered, and the risks assessed before the pilot decides on a response.
3. Implement the Decision and Evaluate the Outcome: After a decision is reached and a course of action is implemented, the pilot continues to evaluate the outcome of the decision to ensure that it produces the desired result.
Single-pilot resource management (SRM) is the art and science of managing all the resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (before and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.
SRM includes the concepts of:
SRM training can help a pilot accurately assess and manage risk and make timely decisions.
Pilots must be aware of the resources found both inside and outside the flight deck to make informed decisions.
Internal resources are found in the airplane. They include the avionics, autopilot, checklists, the AFM/POH, and passengers.
External resources available during flight include ATC and flight service stations (FSS). ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. An FSS can provide updates on weather and airport conditions.
Crew resource management (CRM) applies team management and SRM concepts in a flight deck environment. The “crew” encompasses anyone working with the flight crew, including dispatchers, cabin crew, maintenance personnel, and ATC.
The key to crew coordination is "saying the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, in the right way."
At any point during a flight, one pilot is flying, and one pilot is monitoring.
The pilot flying (PF):
The pilot monitoring (PM):
If the PF needs to engage in activities that would distract from aircraft control, the PF should transfer aircraft control to the other pilot and assume the PM role.
Beginning and Ending a Checklist: State the name of the checklist before beginning. Conclude by stating the name of the checklist and affirming “checklist complete.”
Interrupted Checklists: If the checklist is only delayed for a brief period and the pilot is sure of where he or she was interrupted, the item may be completed, and the checklist may continue. Otherwise, restarting the checklist from the beginning is recommended.
Touch Verification: Enhance accuracy by physically touching each gauge, switch, or control when verifying items. This method minimizes the risk of false confirmations.
Single-Pilot Operations:
Two-Pilot Operations:
Emergencies: Use the challenge-and-response method for non-normal and emergency checklists to ensure a methodical approach and reduce the risk of errors during critical situations.