Risk Management Examples

Overview of the Examples

The following risk management topics correlate with Airman Certification Standards (ACS), which require applicants to identify, assess, and mitigate risk effectively. Items in the ACS that are worded very similarly are combined for efficiency.

Implementing the Risk Management Process

The examples follow the 3P Model (perceive, process, and perform): identify a hazard, state its potential effect on learning or aviation safety, and provide a mitigation action. Pilots and instructors should consider the likelihood and severity of each hazard in the context of the lesson or flight.

Risk Examples for the Fundamentals of Instructing

Recognizing and Accommodating Human Behavior

Failure to recognize stress or anxiety can increase learner frustration; foster an open, supportive learning environment.
Failing to accommodate differences among learners can reduce instructional effectiveness; adapt teaching methods to learners' needs.

Barriers to Communication

Technical jargon can cause misunderstandings; use clear, simple language.
Environmental factors such as noise can inhibit communication; ensure a conducive learning environment and verify understanding through feedback.

Inadequate or Incomplete Instruction

Failure to provide sufficient information may result in knowledge gaps; follow structured lesson plans.
A lack of practical examples hinders the application of theory in real-world situations; incorporate examples and demonstrations into lessons.

Lack of Learner Motivation

A lack of understanding of material relevance reduces motivation; explain its importance and applications.
A lack of engagement can reduce learning outcomes; use interactive and varied teaching methods to maintain engagement.

Recognizing and Correcting Learner Errors

Failing to recognize learner errors can lead to repeated mistakes; monitor learners closely and provide immediate feedback.
Providing vague feedback can confuse learners; give clear, specific guidance.

Selection of Teaching Method

A one-size-fits-all approach can hinder learning; tailor methods to individual needs.

Delivering an Assessment

Ambiguous or vague questions can lead to confusion and misinterpretation; create specific, clear, and direct questions.
Overly complex questions can overwhelm learners; design assessments that match learners' skill levels.
Biased assessments can frustrate learners and undermine trust; use objective standards and apply them consistently.

Fulfilling Instructor Responsibilities

Neglecting professional duties can compromise safety and erode credibility; maintain professional standards and adhere to a code of ethics.
Failing to prepare for lessons can reduce instructional quality; use detailed lesson plans and prepare thoroughly for each lesson.

Exhibiting Professionalism

Unprofessional behavior can undermine learner trust and respect; consistently demonstrate professionalism and integrity.
Failing to set a positive example can lead to conflicts; lead by example in all aspects of flight training and professional conduct.

Hazards Associated with Providing Flight Instruction

Inflight distractions can compromise safety; maintain vigilance.
Inadequate monitoring of learners' actions can pose safety risks; closely monitor and provide timely feedback during flight.
Failure to adhere to standard operating procedures (SOPs) increases the likelihood of accidents and regulatory non-compliance; enforce adherence to SOPs during all flight operations.

Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness During Flight Instruction

Distractions from learners can lead to errors; manage workload effectively.
Fatigue from long instructional hours decreases attention and increases the likelihood of mistakes; ensure adequate rest and manage instructional hours effectively.

Recognizing and Managing Hazards Arising from Human Behavior

Stress and anxiety can reduce the effectiveness of instruction; create a supportive learning environment and incorporate regular breaks.
Overconfidence among learners can lead to ignoring instructor guidance and taking unnecessary risks; ensure that learners recognize their limitations.

Risk Examples for Technical Subjects

Aeromedical and Physiological Issues

Fatigue can reduce reaction times; stay well-rested and incorporate regular breaks.
Dehydration increases the likelihood of errors; remain well hydrated and avoid excessive caffeine intake.
Medications can impair cognitive and motor functions; avoid flying under the influence.

Hazardous Attitudes

A macho attitude can encourage unnecessary risk-taking; recognize the impulse to prove ability and choose the safer course.
Impulsivity can produce hasty decisions before options are considered; pause, evaluate alternatives, and act deliberately.
Invulnerability can cause pilots to discount applicable risks; recognize that accidents can happen to any pilot.

Resignation can delay or prevent corrective action; remain engaged and use all available resources.
An anti-authority attitude can encourage disregard of rules or sound guidance; follow established procedures unless safety requires a deviation.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, poor task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, or disorientation can cause delayed, omitted, or incorrect actions; minimize nonessential tasks, prioritize "Aviate, Navigate, Communicate," and remain focused.

Confirmation and Expectation Bias Relating to Human Factors

Confirmation bias leads to ignoring conflicting information, resulting in incorrect decisions; question assumptions and seek out disconfirming evidence.
Expectation bias can lead to overlooking critical information when it does not align with expectations; review and validate all data objectively.

Distractions to Visual Scanning

Distractions reduce the ability to maintain proper scanning and increase collision risk; minimize unnecessary distractions and scan effectively.
Poor flight deck management impairs consistent visual scanning and increases collision risk; manage tasks to minimize distractions and ensure effective scanning.

Relaxed Intermediate Focal Distance

Scanning a featureless sky can cause the eyes to relax at an intermediate focal distance, making distant traffic difficult to detect; use a systematic scan and periodically focus on distant objects.

High Volume Operational Environments

High traffic density increases workload and the likelihood of midair collisions; maintain heightened situational awareness and use exterior lights to increase visibility.
Congested radio frequencies make it difficult to maintain clear communication; use standard phraseology and keep messages concise.

Collision Reaction Time

A high closure rate of converging aircraft leads to inadequate separation and increases the likelihood of midair collisions; increase vigilance and use traffic advisory systems if available.
Fatigue impairs reaction time, resulting in slower responses to collision threats and an increased likelihood of midair collisions; ensure adequate rest and manage fatigue levels.

Use of a Safety Pilot

Unclear division of responsibilities leads to reduced visual scanning and overreliance on the other pilot; define roles and responsibilities.
Neglecting to use a safety pilot when needed reduces situational awareness; include one and assign active visual-scanning duties.

Confirmation or Expectation Bias as Related to Taxi Instructions

Confirmation bias leads one to selectively hear taxi instructions that align with prior beliefs, resulting in incorrect taxi routes; question assumptions and verify instructions with ATC.
Expectation bias leads to acting on anticipated clearances based on past experience and to missing changes in current instructions; remain vigilant for changes and review instructions carefully.

Entering or Crossing Runways

Miscommunication with ATC increases the likelihood of entering or crossing a runway without clearance; verify instructions with ATC, read back clearances, and request clarification if uncertain.
Failure to visually confirm that the runway is clear may result in collisions with landing or departing aircraft; visually check for traffic before entering or crossing a runway, even if cleared by ATC.

Distraction while taxiing increases the likelihood of runway incursions; avoid nonessential tasks and focus attention outside the aircraft.

Night Taxi Operations

Difficulty in seeing taxiway markings and signs can lead to misidentifying taxiways or runways and increase the likelihood of runway incursions; maintain heightened situational awareness and reduce taxi speed.
Improper use of exterior lights increases the risk of not being seen; check the operation of all exterior lighting during preflight inspection and use external lighting when appropriate.

Low Visibility Taxi Operations

Poor visibility increases the likelihood of a wrong turn or runway incursion; use an airport diagram and taxi at reduced speeds.
Difficulty in following taxi instructions due to reduced visibility can lead to disorientation; seek ATC assistance when necessary.

Runway Incursion After Landing

Failure to clear the runway promptly increases the likelihood of runway incursions; exit the runway promptly onto the first available taxiway.
Airports with close parallel runways increase the likelihood of runway incursions due to proximity; maintain situational awareness and follow ATC instructions closely.

Operating on Taxiways Between Parallel Runways

Incorrect taxiway identification can lead to runway incursions or conflicts with aircraft on the taxiway; review airport diagrams.
Miscommunication with ATC can result in runway incursions or conflicts with aircraft on the taxiway; maintain clear, concise communication with ATC.

The Basic Aerodynamic Principles of Flight

Inadequate knowledge of aerodynamic principles can lead to inconsistent aircraft handling and control; seek training in aerodynamics.
Ignoring aerodynamic principles in practical applications compromises flight safety and efficiency; apply them consistently throughout all phases of flight.

Detection of System Malfunctions or Failures

Unfamiliarity with aircraft systems can escalate minor issues into major failures; regularly review and understand aircraft systems.
Delayed detection of malfunctions poses potential safety hazards; maintain vigilance for abnormal indications during flight.

Management of a System Failure

Failure to follow checklist procedures can lead to further system degradation; adhere strictly to checklist procedures.
Panic or stress during a system failure compromises decision-making and error management; develop stress management techniques and maintain composure.
A lack of troubleshooting knowledge hinders the ability to address malfunctions; review and practice procedures regularly.

Monitoring and Management of Automated Systems (Navigation and Autoflight)

Selecting an inappropriate level of automation can increase workload and create mode errors; use the level appropriate to the phase of flight and monitor its performance.
Excessive reliance on automation can lead to complacency and reduced situational awareness; regularly practice manual flying skills and recognize the limitations of automated systems.

Failure to monitor navigational performance or to make proper mode selections can lead to off-route deviations and navigation errors; regularly check navigational performance and cross-check against other navigation systems.

Providing Instruction in Unfamiliar Aircraft or with Unfamiliar Flight Displays

Unfamiliarity with aircraft-specific systems, flight displays, and avionics decreases instructional effectiveness and increases safety risks; prepare adequately before conducting instruction.

Use of Performance Charts, Tables, and Data

Misinterpreting performance data leads to inaccurate performance calculations and increased safety risks; maintain proficiency in using performance charts and verify calculations.
Failing to account for environmental factors can lead to overestimating aircraft performance; consider temperature and density altitude.

Airplane Limitations

Ignorance of published aircraft limitations increases safety risks; review the AFM/POH regularly and review vital limitations before each flight.
Operating beyond maximum speed or load factor can lead to structural failure and loss of control; monitor aircraft parameters closely and do not exceed the aircraft's limitations.

Possible Differences Between Calculated Performance and Actual Performance

Variations in aircraft performance due to factors not accounted for in calculations can lead to unexpected performance shortfalls; take time to verify calculations and account for potential discrepancies.
Pilot technique and skill can impact actual performance; plan conservatively to account for variations.

Exceeding Weight Limits

Overloading the aircraft reduces performance; accurately calculate and adhere to weight limits.
Overloading the cargo area or improper weight distribution can cause structural stress and imbalance during flight; ensure proper weight distribution and verify the weights of cargo and passengers.

Operating Outside of CG Limits

Incorrect loading of the aircraft can reduce stability or controllability; calculate and verify CG limits before flight.
Unsecured cargo or unaccounted CG movement can shift the aircraft outside its allowable CG envelope and reduce stability or controllability; secure cargo and account for fuel burn and other inflight load changes.

Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight

Incorrect recalculations of weight and balance can result in incorrect CG and potential for overloading; accurately recalculate weight and balance with any changes.
Failing to account for changes in weight distribution can lead to an incorrect CG and a potential violation of CG limits; follow proper loading procedures and ensure that all weight changes are accounted for before flight.

Airspace Classes and Associated Requirements and Limitations

Misunderstanding airspace classifications can lead to airspace violations and potential conflicts with other aircraft; study and understand the different classes and types of airspace.
Lack of awareness of airspace boundaries increases the potential for unintended airspace incursions; use navigation aids and charts to maintain situational awareness of airspace boundaries.

Limitations of the Navigation System in Use

Failing to account for system limitations can lead to navigation errors and an inability to perform required navigation tasks; thoroughly understand the navigation system's capabilities and limitations.
Overreliance on a single navigation system increases vulnerability to navigation failures; remain proficient in multiple navigation systems and use all available resources.

Loss of a Navigation Signal

Signal interference or equipment failure can cause navigation errors and impair the ability to perform required navigation tasks; regularly assess navigational performance and cross-check against other navigation systems.
Overreliance on a single navigation system increases vulnerability to navigation failures; use multiple navigation sources.

Use of an Electronic Flight Bag (EFB)

Failure to update EFB data can cause navigational errors and non-compliance; update EFB data regularly.
Distraction from primary flying tasks reduces situational awareness; ensure EFB use does not distract from them.

The Four Risk Factors in Navigation and Cross-Country Flight Planning

Pilot: Fatigue, stress, and poor planning increase navigation errors and the risk of getting lost; ensure rest and plan thoroughly.
Aircraft: Inoperative equipment, inadequate fuel planning, and improper loading reduce capabilities, risk fuel exhaustion, and impact performance or controllability; wait for equipment repairs if necessary, verify fuel calculations, and ensure proper loading.

Environment: Adverse weather, high terrain, and ATC restrictions cause route deviations and increased workload; review weather reports, plan appropriate routes, and have contingency plans.

External Pressures: Time constraints and passenger expectations can lead to poor decisions, increased stress, and a higher risk of errors; set realistic expectations, allocate planning time, prioritize safety, and stay flexible.

Limitations of ATC Services

Overreliance on ATC for navigation and traffic avoidance can lead to inadequate situational awareness; remain independent in navigation and traffic avoidance.
Failure to plan for areas with limited ATC coverage increases the potential for navigational errors; understand ATC limitations.

Inadequate communication skills or knowledge of ATC procedures increases the likelihood of conflicts and pilot deviations; ensure clear, concise communication with ATC using proper phraseology.

Limitations of Electronic Planning Applications and Programs

Overreliance on electronic planning applications can cause complacency; regularly practice manual planning and navigation techniques.
User input errors can lead to incorrect flight planning; verify all inputs and use cross-checking methods.

Fuel Planning

Inaccurate fuel calculations or unexpected changes in fuel consumption can lead to running out of fuel; perform accurate fuel calculations and monitor fuel consumption during flight.
Failure to ensure adequate fuel reserves can result in an inability to reach the destination or alternate airports; always include fuel reserves.

Use of Expired Charts, Manuals, or Publications

Relying on outdated charts and navigation data increases the likelihood of navigational errors and potential violations of airspace regulations; regularly update charts and navigation data, and verify their currency before each flight.
Using outdated manuals or publications increases safety risks; use reliable sources to obtain the latest updates.

Endorsements Without Appropriate Limitations or Expiration Dates

An endorsement that omits a required limitation, condition, or validity period can lead to misuse of privileges; verify the applicable regulation and AC 61-65, then state each required or instructor-imposed restriction clearly.

Inoperative Equipment Specific to Night Operations

Failure to recognize and report inoperative equipment increases the risk during night operations; follow proper procedures for managing inoperative equipment and ensure that all instruments and equipment required for night flight are operational.

Weather Considerations Specific to Night Operations

Limited visibility increases the likelihood of navigational errors and spatial disorientation; obtain detailed weather briefings.
Difficulty assessing weather conditions increases the risk of inadvertent flight into adverse weather; use all available resources, including ATC assistance and onboard weather systems.

Collision Hazards During Night Operations

Reduced visibility of other aircraft, obstacles, and terrain increases the likelihood of midair collisions; use all available lighting and perform clearing turns.
Inadequate lighting increases the likelihood of accidents while taxiing and midair collisions; follow established collision avoidance procedures.

Glare from exterior or interior lights can cause visual confusion and increase the likelihood of midair collisions; adjust interior lighting to minimize glare.

Visual Illusions Specific to Night Operations and Night Adaptation

Visual illusions and spatial disorientation can cause misperceptions of altitude, distance, and orientation and increase the potential for loss of control; maintain proficiency in flying by reference to the flight instruments.

Failure to allow sufficient time for night adaptation of the eyes reduces the ability to see clearly in low-light conditions; allow sufficient time for the eyes to adapt to darkness before flight.

Night Currency Versus Proficiency

Meeting minimum currency requirements without maintaining proficiency can reduce confidence and skill during night operations; regularly practice night flying beyond minimum requirements.

High Altitude Flight

Hypoxia impairs cognitive and motor functions and increases reaction times; be aware of the signs and symptoms of hypoxia, monitor cabin pressure, and use supplemental oxygen as required.
Rapid decompression can cause a potential loss of consciousness; use supplemental oxygen immediately.

Reduced physiological performance due to lower oxygen levels impairs performance and increases fatigue; maintain awareness of cabin altitude and use supplemental oxygen proactively.

Use of Supplemental Oxygen

Failure to use oxygen at required altitudes may lead to hypoxia and impaired decision-making; use oxygen as needed based on altitude and flight duration.
Equipment malfunctions or improper equipment use can result in hypoxia and potential inflight medical emergencies; be aware of the signs and symptoms of hypoxia and regularly inspect and maintain oxygen equipment.

Management of Compressed Gas Containers

Improper storage or handling of oxygen cylinders can cause oxygen leaks, fire risks, or explosions; follow proper storage and handling procedures.
Equipment leaks reduce the oxygen supply during flight; regularly inspect for leaks.

Combustion Hazards in an Oxygen-Rich Environment

A high oxygen concentration can cause rapid spread of fire, damage to aircraft systems, and potential injury to crew and passengers; avoid using flammable materials and follow strict no-smoking policies.

Malfunction of a Pressurization System

A pressurization failure can cause hypoxia and require an emergency descent; monitor cabin altitude, don supplemental oxygen, and follow the approved emergency procedure.

Freezing Levels and Possible Icing Conditions

Failure to identify freezing levels or potential icing conditions can result in unexpected icing encounters; always consult weather briefings for freezing-level information before flight.

Aircraft and Anti-Icing/Deicing System Limitations

Flight into icing beyond the aircraft's certification or capability can rapidly degrade performance and controllability; respect published limitations and avoid or promptly exit icing conditions.
Anti-icing and deicing systems have finite capabilities and do not eliminate icing hazards; understand system limitations, use them as prescribed, and exit icing conditions before capability is exceeded.

Effects of High-Density Altitude

Failing to account for density altitude effects on takeoff performance can lead to longer takeoff rolls and reduced climb rates; consult performance charts and adjust expectations accordingly.

Risk Examples for Preflight Preparation and Procedures

Proficiency Versus Currency

Meeting minimum currency requirements without maintaining proficiency decreases the ability to handle unexpected situations and increases the likelihood of errors; regularly train and practice beyond minimum requirements.

Personal Minimums

Personal minimums that do not reflect current proficiency, aircraft capability, or conditions can expose pilots to risks beyond their current capabilities; establish conservative limits before flight and revise them only after an objective, pressure-free review.

Flying Unfamiliar Aircraft or Operating with Unfamiliar Flight Displays

Unfamiliarity with aircraft-specific systems, flight displays, and avionics can lead to improper use and increased safety risks; seek training on new systems.

Inoperative Equipment Discovered Before Flight

Improperly evaluating inoperative equipment can result in an unairworthy aircraft or loss of required capability; apply the applicable MEL, KOEL, 14 CFR 91.213, and AFM/POH procedures before flight.

Making the Go/No-Go and Continue/Divert Decisions

Fuel concerns, passenger discomfort, and deteriorating weather conditions can necessitate an inflight diversion; establish personal minimums and have alternate plans.
Pressure to complete a flight can cause pilots to relax personal minimums; establish and revise minimums outside the immediate go/no-go decision, then adhere to them.

Hazardous weather conditions, including known or forecast icing or turbulence aloft, can compromise safety; avoid flying in such conditions or plan alternate routes.

Use and Limitations of Weather Information

Overreliance on onboard weather equipment can lead to unanticipated weather; understand its limitations.
Failure to check current weather reports or update weather information during flight increases the likelihood of weather-related incidents; regularly check for weather updates and use all available resources.

Misinterpreting aviation weather reports and forecasts can lead to incorrect weather-related decisions; maintain a thorough working knowledge of aviation weather products.

Preflight Assessment (PAVE Checklist)

Pilot: Fatigue, stress, illness, and lack of proficiency impair decision-making, decrease reaction times, and reduce the ability to handle emergencies; ensure adequate rest, conduct self-assessment (I'M SAFE checklist), and maintain proficiency through regular training.

Aircraft: Mechanical issues, improper maintenance, and undetected damage can lead to inflight mechanical failures, reduced performance, and compromised safety; conduct thorough preflight inspections, adhere to maintenance schedules, and address discrepancies before flight.

Environment: Adverse weather, unfamiliar airports, restricted airspace, challenging terrain, and obstacles increase the difficulty of navigation, workload, and accident risk; review weather reports and forecasts, plan routes that account for airspace and terrain, and maintain contingency plans.

External Pressures: Time constraints, passenger expectations, and pressure to complete the flight compromise safety due to rushed decisions, increased stress, and a higher likelihood of errors; allocate sufficient time for preflight procedures and prioritize safety over schedule.

Aviation Security Concerns

Unauthorized access to the aircraft can lead to sabotage and theft; adhere to security protocols and secure the aircraft when unattended.
Failure to follow TSA citizenship-verification regulations violates regulations and increases security risks; ensure adherence to TSA flight-training rules and conduct regular compliance checks.

Use of Systems or Equipment

Misuse or overreliance on automation can reduce situational awareness and lead to improper flight management; use automation effectively and understand its capabilities.
Distraction from portable electronic devices can lead to errors and compromise safety; minimize their use during critical phases of flight.

Passenger Distractions

Passenger conversations can lead to a loss of situational awareness and an increased potential for errors; establish communication protocols before flight.

Propeller Safety

Failure to clear the areas around the propeller and behind the airplane during engine start can lead to injuries or property damage; always check the surroundings before starting the engine.
Passengers who are unaware of propeller hazards increase the risk of injury; escort them while on the ramp.

Taxiing over loose objects or tiedown ropes can damage the propeller, injure people, or damage property behind the aircraft; always maintain situational awareness and avoid taxiing over loose objects or ropes.

Use of an External Power Unit for Engine Starting

Using a ground power unit with incorrect voltage or polarity can damage the electrical system; verify both before connecting it.

Limitations During Engine Starting

Battery limitations can cause insufficient power for engine start and potential battery damage; ensure the battery is fully charged and within its operating limits.
Prolonged use of the starter can cause overheating and potential starter damage; adhere to starter limitation times and recommended cooling periods.

Inadequate engine lubrication can cause engine damage; monitor the oil pressure gauge immediately after engine startup and shut the engine down if the pressure is outside the specified limits.

Activities and Distractions While Taxiing

High workload during taxiing can lead to surface deviations and runway incursions; maintain focus and adhere to sterile flight deck policy.
Distractions from passengers or equipment increase the likelihood of surface deviations and runway incursions; manage passenger interactions and secure all equipment before taxiing.

Confirmation or Expectation Bias as Related to Taxi Instructions

Confirmation bias leads one to selectively hear taxi instructions that align with prior beliefs, resulting in incorrect taxi routes; question assumptions and verify instructions with ATC.
Expectation bias leads to acting on anticipated clearances based on past experience and to missing changes in current instructions; remain vigilant for changes and review instructions carefully.

Taxi Route or Departure Runway Change

Increased workload can lead to surface deviations and runway incursions; prioritize tasks and delegate responsibilities when possible.
Failure to review the taxi route change can lead to surface deviations and runway incursions; review and confirm the new taxi route immediately upon receiving instructions.

Runway Incursion While Taxiing

Misunderstanding ATC instructions can lead to runway incursions; use proper readback techniques and clarify instructions with ATC if needed.
Distractions and complacency can lead to runway incursions; continuously maintain situational awareness and monitor aircraft position.

Division of Attention While Conducting Before Takeoff Checks

Failure to notice the aircraft rolling forward can lead to collisions or pilot deviations; ensure the brakes are held or locked, and always monitor the area around the airplane.
Checklist interruptions can cause missing critical checklist items and improper aircraft configuration; minimize interruptions and ensure all checklist items are completed.

Unexpected Runway Changes by ATC

Failure to review the planned departure route increases the likelihood of pilot deviations; review the planned departure and request additional time if necessary.
Failing to review plans for an engine failure after takeoff can lead to inappropriate actions due to the startle response; thoroughly review and brief engine failure procedures before takeoff.

Wake Turbulence During the Taxi and Takeoff Roll

Wake turbulence from a preceding aircraft can cause loss of control during taxi or takeoff; account for wind, delay as needed, and avoid the preceding aircraft's wake.

Potential Powerplant Failure or Other Malfunction During the Takeoff Roll

Delayed or improper response to powerplant failure can lead to runway excursions or reduced takeoff performance; review and brief emergency procedures before takeoff and monitor instrumentation closely.
Suboptimal surface or environmental conditions increase the risk of runway excursions and reduce takeoff performance; remain vigilant and assess the potential impact of all factors.

Risk Examples for Airport Operations

Communications in the Vicinity of an Airport

Miscommunication with ATC or other aircraft can lead to misunderstandings or missed critical communications; request confirmation and read back ATC instructions clearly.
Using improper phraseology or unclear communication increases safety risks and the likelihood of miscommunication; use standard phraseology and adhere to proper radio etiquette.

Frequency congestion can block critical calls; monitor the appropriate frequency, keep transmissions concise, and avoid unnecessary calls.

Deciding If and When to Declare an Emergency

Fear of repercussions can delay an emergency declaration and limit available assistance; declare an emergency promptly when safety requires and clearly state the assistance needed.
Delayed decision-making increases the risk of escalation into a more severe emergency; practice emergency scenarios to build confidence in decision-making.

Collision Hazards Related to Airport Operations

High-density traffic at a nontowered airport increases the likelihood of midair collisions; remain alert, clear the area before turning, and make radio calls.
Simultaneous operations on parallel or intersecting runways increase the risk of runway incursions and collisions; maintain situational awareness and comply with ATC instructions or make radio calls.

Incorrect traffic pattern entry procedures can cause conflicts with aircraft already in the pattern; follow standard traffic pattern entry procedures.

Low-Altitude Maneuvering, Including Stall, Spin, or CFIT

Power lines, towers, and rapidly rising terrain increase the potential for CFIT; avoid unnecessary maneuvers near the ground.
Lack of airspeed or altitude awareness can lead to inadvertent CFIT, stall, spin, or loss of control; increase focus and awareness as altitude or airspeed decreases.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, poor task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, or disorientation can cause delayed, omitted, or incorrect actions; minimize nonessential tasks, prioritize "Aviate, Navigate, Communicate," and remain focused.

Windshear and Wake Turbulence During Takeoffs and Landings

Windshear can rapidly change airspeed and flightpath and lead to loss of control; avoid reported or detected windshear and execute the approved escape guidance promptly if encountered.
Wake turbulence can result in a loss of control; maintain proper spacing from preceding aircraft.

Selection of Runway for Takeoffs and Landings

Runway length may be inadequate for a safe takeoff or landing; select the most suitable runway based on preflight performance planning.
Surface conditions can reduce performance on soft or uneven surfaces; consider the surface condition during preflight performance planning.

Wind direction can present crosswind challenges or tailwind landings; select the most suitable runway based on the current winds.
Obstacles pose a collision risk; ensure a clear departure or approach path.

Effects of the Environment and Runway Surface/Condition

Crosswind can make it difficult to maintain directional control and may cause runway excursions; apply appropriate crosswind correction techniques.
Windshear can result in loss of control and increased takeoff or landing distance; maintain a safe speed for the conditions.

A tailwind increases takeoff and landing distance and can reduce runway margins; select an into-wind runway when practical and apply published tailwind limitations and performance data.
Wake turbulence can result in a loss of control; maintain safe separation from preceding aircraft.

Surface conditions can make it difficult to maintain directional control or increase takeoff or landing distance; ensure the runway surface is suitable.

Planning for Abnormal Operations During Takeoff

Failure to plan for a rejected takeoff can result in a delayed response and runway excursions; review and brief emergency procedures before takeoff.
Failure to plan for an engine failure after liftoff can lead to a delayed response, loss of control, and an inability to make a safe landing; stay vigilant and prepared to execute emergency procedures.

Planning for Abnormal Operations During Landing

Failure to plan for a go-around or a rejected landing can result in a delayed response, loss of control, and becoming too low or too slow to conduct a safe go-around; stay vigilant and prepared to execute a go-around or a rejected landing.

Failure to plan for LAHSO increases the likelihood of conflicts and pilot deviations; calculate the required landing distance and ask for extra time if necessary.

Runway Incursion During Takeoffs and Landings

Misunderstanding ATC instructions, such as a LUAW or LAHSO clearance, increases the likelihood of runway incursions; use proper readback techniques and clarify instructions with ATC if needed.
Lack of situational awareness during takeoff or landing increases the likelihood of runway incursions; scan the runway environment and remain attentive.

Failure to clear the runway promptly after landing increases the likelihood of runway incursions; exit the runway promptly on the first available taxiway.

Forward Slip Operations to a Landing

Failure to observe aircraft limitations regarding flap settings and fuel levels increases the risk of tail stalls or fuel starvation; adhere to aircraft limitations and precautions.
A late or abrupt exit from the slip can lead to loss of directional control; use smooth control inputs.

Inadequate airspeed or pitch control results in excessive speed, which increases landing distance, or slowing too much, risking an uncoordinated stall; maintain an appropriate airspeed and be aware of instrumentation errors during a slip.

Sideloading on Surface Contact During a Slip to a Landing

Misalignment during touchdown increases wear on the landing gear and may lead to a loss of directional control; ensure proper crosswind correction and maintain inputs throughout the landing roll.

Unstable Approach During a Slip to a Landing

Inconsistent airspeed or an improper glidepath increases the likelihood of hard landings or runway overruns; apply energy management principles to maintain a stable approach profile and execute a go-around if necessary.

Power-Off 180° Accuracy Approach and Landing

Misjudging the glidepath can lead to undershooting or overshooting the runway; maintain proficiency in power-off approaches to improve judgment.
Inadequate airspeed control can lead to a stall or loss of control; maintain the recommended approach speed and avoid stretching the glide.

Forcing the airplane onto the runway can result in a hard landing or loss of directional control; ensure a smooth, proper flare.

Delayed Recognition of the Need for a Go-Around/Rejected Landing

Failing to recognize the need for a go-around can lead to performing a go-around too low or too slow; practice go-around scenarios to improve decision-making speed and confidence.

Delayed Performance of a Go-Around at Low Altitude

Delaying a go-around at low altitude reduces climb and obstacle-clearance margins; initiate the maneuver promptly when stabilized-approach criteria are not met.
Slow-speed considerations increase the risk of stalling if immediate corrective action is not taken; monitor airspeed closely and be prepared to execute a go-around to avoid stalling.

Power Application During a Go-Around/Rejected Landing

Abrupt power application can cause a sudden pitch change and loss of control; apply power smoothly and promptly.
Delayed or inadequate power application can cause excessive airspeed decay or a stall; apply the manufacturer-specified go-around power promptly while controlling pitch and yaw.

Configuring the Airplane During a Go-Around/Rejected Landing

Abrupt configuration changes can cause a sudden pitch change or loss of lift; make configuration changes smoothly and follow AFM/POH procedures.
Delayed configuration changes or changes made in the wrong sequence can cause performance degradation (reduced climb rate and increased drag); initiate configuration changes promptly and follow AFM/POH procedures.

Managing a Go-Around/Rejected Landing After Accepting a LAHSO Clearance

Failure to prepare for a potential go-around after accepting an LAHSO clearance can cause confusion and delayed responses; brief all potential outcomes, including the need to maintain safe separation from aircraft and to notify ATC immediately.

Risk Examples for Flight Maneuver and Stall Training

Division of Attention Between Aircraft Control and Orientation

Frequent changes in flightpath can cause loss of precise aircraft control; use smooth, coordinated control inputs.
Fixating the eyes inside or outside the aircraft can lead to a loss of control or orientation; maintain a balanced scan between instruments and outside references.

Collision Hazards During Flight Maneuvers

High-density training areas increase the likelihood of midair collisions; perform clearing turns and make radio calls.
Conducting maneuvers near airways or arrival and departure routes increases collision risk; select training areas clear of known traffic flows and maintain an active traffic scan.

Abrupt altitude changes during maneuvers increase the likelihood of midair collisions; perform clearing turns and make radio calls.
Distractions while performing maneuvers increase the likelihood of midair collisions; minimize flight deck distractions and stay vigilant.

Low-Altitude Maneuvering, Including Stall, Spin, or CFIT

Power lines, towers, and rapidly rising terrain increase the potential for CFIT; avoid unnecessary maneuvers near the ground.
Lack of airspeed or altitude awareness can lead to inadvertent CFIT, stall, spin, or loss of control; increase focus and awareness as altitude or airspeed decreases.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, poor task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, or disorientation can cause delayed, omitted, or incorrect actions; minimize nonessential tasks, prioritize "Aviate, Navigate, Communicate," and remain focused.

Uncoordinated Flight

Improper or inadequate control inputs can cause uncoordinated stalls or spins; use smooth control inputs and monitor coordination.

Configuring the Airplane During Flight Training Maneuvers

Exceeding aircraft limitations during configuration changes or maneuvers can increase stress on or damage the airframe, flaps, or landing gear; verify the proper configuration and make changes in accordance with AFM/POH procedures.

Altitude Selection for Flight Training Maneuvers

Selecting an altitude that is too low can result in insufficient recovery time from an inadvertent loss of control or other emergency; choose an altitude that provides ample recovery time and clearance from obstacles.

Entry and Recovery Procedures for Flight Training Maneuvers

Distractions or rushing to complete entry or recovery procedures increase the likelihood of errors and omissions; minimize distractions and maintain focus.

Effects of Wind on Flight Maneuvers

Changes in wind direction and speed can cause drift from the intended flightpath; apply wind-drift correction techniques.
Entering a ground-reference maneuver without accounting for wind can produce poor spacing or excessive bank; plan the entry and vary bank to maintain the desired ground track.

Gusts and turbulence can cause abrupt changes in altitude or attitude; use smooth, coordinated control inputs to compensate for wind effects.

Airframe or Airspeed Limitations During Flight Maneuvers

Exceeding structural limits can lead to structural failure and a loss of control; adhere to published airspeed limitations, particularly V_A.
High-speed flight in turbulent conditions increases airframe stress; adhere to published airspeed limitations, particularly V_NO and V_B.

Inappropriate aircraft configurations for the speed increase stress or damage to the airframe, flaps, or landing gear; configure the aircraft properly using a checklist.

Energy Management During Flight Maneuvers

Excessive angle of attack can cause a stall; manage pitch, power, and bank to preserve appropriate airspeed and energy margins.
Improper power management can lead to stalling or inefficient energy use; monitor aircraft performance parameters.
Failure to anticipate energy requirements can result in insufficient altitude or airspeed; plan maneuvers with energy requirements in mind.

Rate and Radius of Turn with Confined Area Operations

Misjudging turn radius in confined areas can lead to collisions with obstacles or terrain; practice confined-area operations and plan maneuvers carefully.
Excessive bank angles increase the risk of loss of altitude or an accelerated stall; use appropriate bank angles for the given speed and altitude.

Accelerated Stalls During Flight Maneuvers

High load factors combined with excessive angle of attack can cause an accelerated stall; manage bank, pitch, and airspeed within aircraft limitations.
Abrupt control inputs increase the likelihood of an accelerated stall; use smooth, coordinated control inputs.
Distractions during maneuvering flight can lead to an accelerated stall; minimize distractions and focus on aircraft control.

Emergency Landing Considerations During Flight Maneuvers

Limited suitable landing areas increase the risk of aircraft damage and occupant injury; select the best available area for maneuvers and evaluate landing options early.
Obstacles such as trees and power lines increase the risk of collision during landing; scan the area thoroughly and remain vigilant for obstacles throughout descent and approach.

Unfavorable winds can result in a crosswind or tailwind landing, which may cause a hard landing or insufficient room to land safely; maintain awareness of wind direction and evaluate landing options early.

Inadvertent Slow Flight

Inadvertent slow flight increases the risk of a stall or spin; monitor airspeed and remain aware of flight conditions.

Unacknowledged Stall Warning Indications

Ignoring or misinterpreting stall-warning indications can lead to inadvertent stalls and delayed recovery; maintain vigilance for stall warnings and reduce the AOA when they occur.

Stall Warning(s) During Normal Operations

An unintentional high AOA can cause an inadvertent stall; maintain vigilance for stall warnings and reduce the AOA when they occur.

Range, Limitations, and Characteristics of Airspeed and Stall Warning Indicators

Assuming a stall warning will occur before every stall can delay recognition; know the system's range and limitations and recognize aerodynamic stall cues.
Limited effectiveness of stall warning systems in icing conditions or turbulence can lead to undetected stalls; be aware of flight conditions where stall warnings may be unreliable.

Overreliance on stall-warning systems can lead to failure to recognize the onset of a stall if the device malfunctions; cross-check against other indicators, such as airspeed and AOA.

Effect of Environmental Elements Related to Stalls

Turbulence can cause unexpected changes in lift, potentially leading to stalls; maintain a safe speed for the conditions.
Windshear can rapidly increase angle of attack or reduce airspeed and lead to a stall; avoid known windshear and execute approved escape guidance if encountered.

Microbursts produce sudden, severe downdrafts, leading to rapid loss of altitude and control; avoid areas with a potential for microbursts and be prepared for sudden changes in performance.
High density altitude reduces climb performance and can tempt pilots to increase angle of attack; calculate performance before flight and preserve airspeed and terrain clearance.

Lack of Familiarity with Airspeed Limitations and the Airspeed Indicator

Misunderstanding factors affecting stall speeds, such as weight, bank angle, and CG location, can lead to inadvertent stalls due to incorrect assumptions about stall speeds; understand the factors affecting stall speeds and use AOA indicators if available.

Lack of knowledge of aircraft airspeed limitations, such as V_A and maximum flap speeds, can result in exceeding safe operational limits, leading to structural damage; review and adhere to published airspeed limitations, and understand how changes in weight affect V_A.

Exceeding Aircraft Limitations (Airspeed/Configuration Demo)

Exceeding the maximum flap or gear speed can increase stress on or damage the airframe, flaps, or landing gear; confirm that the airplane is within its speed limitations before making a configuration change.
Exceeding V_A can lead to structural damage during abrupt maneuvers; understand and respect V_A and avoid abrupt control inputs.

Flight Characteristics in the Region of Reversed Command

Operating in the region of reversed command, where slower speeds require more power to maintain altitude, can lead to a loss of control, difficulty maintaining altitude, and increased workload; seek training on the flight characteristics in this region and avoid unnecessary operations there.

Maneuvering at Critically Slow Airspeeds

Uncoordinated maneuvers can result in uncoordinated or cross-controlled stalls or spins; use smooth control inputs and monitor coordination.
Increased load factor during maneuvers can lead to inadvertent stalls due to higher stall speeds; understand how load factors affect stall speed and avoid abrupt maneuvers at slow speeds.

Inadvertent Exceedance of the Critical Angle of Attack

Maneuvering during slow flight, aggressive maneuvers, and uncoordinated flight can lead to inadvertent stall, spin, and loss of control; maintain airspeed awareness, use smooth control inputs, and monitor coordination.

Factors that Could Lead to an Inadvertent Stall

High load factors during turns, abrupt control inputs, and uncoordinated flight can result in inadvertent stall, spin, and loss of control; maintain airspeed awareness, use smooth control inputs, and monitor coordination.

Stall Recovery Procedure

Using a generic stall-recovery technique instead of the AFM/POH procedure can delay recovery; review and follow the manufacturer's procedure.
Delayed recognition or improper response to a stall indication can prolong the stall and increase altitude loss; respond promptly to stall warnings by first lowering the AOA.

Rushing the recovery or overcorrecting can lead to a secondary stall and increased altitude loss; use smooth control inputs during recovery.

Secondary Stalls, Accelerated Stalls, and Cross-Control Stalls

Rushing the recovery or overcorrecting can cause a secondary stall and increased altitude loss; use smooth control inputs during recovery.
Abrupt control inputs or excessive bank angles can lead to an accelerated stall and a sudden loss of lift; avoid aggressive maneuvers and use smooth, coordinated control inputs.

Uncoordinated flight during a stall entry can cause a cross-controlled stall or spin; use smooth control inputs and monitor coordination during maneuvers.

Factors and Situations that Could Lead to Inadvertent Spin

A high AOA combined with uncoordinated flight can result in entry into a spin, significant altitude loss, and difficulty recovering; maintain awareness of airspeed and AOA and use smooth, coordinated control inputs.

Spin Recovery Procedure

Using an incorrect spin-recovery procedure can delay recovery or aggravate the spin; review and follow the AFM/POH procedure before intentional spin training.

Delayed recognition or improper recovery actions can lead to further loss of altitude and increased difficulty in recovering from a fully developed spin; respond promptly to spin indications and follow the spin recovery procedure in the AFM/POH.

Overcorrecting control inputs during spin recovery can result in entering into a spin in the opposite direction or a secondary stall and increased altitude loss; release rudder inputs when the rotation stops and avoid rushing the stall recovery.

Risk Examples for Basic Instrument Maneuvers

Instrument Flying Hazards

Failure to maintain VFR conditions can lead to midair collisions and loss of control; adhere to personal weather minimums and continuously monitor weather conditions.

Visual illusions and spatial disorientation can cause misperceptions of altitude, distance, and orientation, potentially leading to a loss of control; avoid sudden head movements and maintain proficiency in flying by reference to the flight instruments.

When to Seek Assistance or Declare an Emergency

Deteriorating weather conditions increase the likelihood of midair collisions and a loss of control; communicate the nature of the situation to ATC.
Icing can reduce lift, increase drag, and lead to loss of control; activate available protection as directed, exit icing promptly, and advise ATC.

Collision Hazards Related to an Inadvertent Entry into IMC

Inadvertent IMC can eliminate visual separation and lead to loss of control or collision; maintain aircraft control, contact ATC, and obtain assistance or an appropriate clearance.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, poor task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, or disorientation can cause delayed, omitted, or incorrect actions; minimize nonessential tasks, prioritize "Aviate, Navigate, Communicate," and remain focused.

Fixation and Omission

Fixating on a single instrument or omitting instruments from the scan can lead to a loss of situational awareness and aircraft control; seek training and maintain proficiency in instrument flying techniques: cross-checking, interpretation, and control.

Instrument Interpretation

Misreading or misinterpreting flight instruments increases the likelihood of errors, spatial disorientation, and loss of control; understand the operation of each instrument and maintain proficiency in flying by reference to them.

Control Application Solely by Reference to Instruments

Overcorrection and abrupt control movements can induce undesired aircraft attitudes and lead to a loss of control; practice smooth, coordinated inputs and maintain proficiency in the attitude instrument flying process: establish, trim, cross-check, and adjust.

Trimming the Aircraft

Improper trim adjustments when flying by reference to the flight instruments can increase workload and the likelihood of making errors; trim the aircraft in all phases of flight using a three-step process: pitch, power, trim.

Situations that Could Lead to a Loss of Control or Unusual Attitude

Distractions, spatial disorientation, and task saturation can lead to a loss of control and difficulty recovering to level flight; seek training in upset prevention and recovery techniques and in task management skills.

Inadequate instrument scans can result in entry into unusual attitudes; seek training and maintain proficiency in instrument flying techniques: cross-checking, interpretation, and control.

Assessment of the Unusual Attitude

Misidentification or delayed recognition of an unusual attitude can prolong recovery, increasing the risk of further disorientation, altitude loss, and structural damage; seek training in unusual attitude recognition and recovery techniques in realistic scenarios.

Control Input Errors, Inducing Undesired Aircraft Attitudes

Overcorrection and abrupt control movements can induce undesired aircraft attitudes and lead to a loss of control; practice smooth, coordinated inputs and proper attitude-correction techniques.

Operating Envelope Considerations for Unusual Attitudes

Overstressing the aircraft during recovery maneuvers or encountering turbulence in clouds can cause structural damage and lead to a loss of control; adhere to recommended recovery procedures and avoid aggressive inputs.

Risk Examples for Emergency Operations

Collision Hazards Related to Emergency Operations

Preoccupation with handling the emergency can lead to midair collisions due to reduced situational awareness; delegate tasks and use all available resources to maintain situational awareness.
Failure to communicate during an emergency can leave ATC and nearby pilots unaware of unexpected flightpath changes; declare the emergency, state intentions clearly, and maintain a continuous traffic scan.

Configuring the Airplane During an Emergency

Preoccupation with handling the emergency can lead to configuration errors due to distractions; maintain situational awareness, follow checklists, and delegate tasks when possible.

Low-Altitude Maneuvering, Including Stall, Spin, or CFIT

Distractions during emergency situations can lead to inadvertent CFIT, stall, spin, or loss of control; increase focus and awareness as altitude or airspeed decreases.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, poor task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, or disorientation can cause delayed, omitted, or incorrect actions; minimize nonessential tasks, prioritize "Aviate, Navigate, Communicate," and remain focused.

Emergency Approach and Landing Considerations

Low altitude or limited glide performance can place suitable landing areas beyond reach; establish the recommended glide speed promptly and select a landing area within glide range.
Rugged terrain or obstacles can lead to CFIT during an emergency landing; select routes with suitable emergency landing areas and scan for obstacles.

Adverse wind conditions can prevent an aircraft from reaching a safe landing area with adequate stopping distance; consider the wind direction and speed for the glide, the approach, and when selecting a landing area.

Following or Changing the Flightpath to the Selected Landing Area

The initial selection of a landing area can result in selecting a site that is too far away to glide to or that has unseen hazards; quickly identify and choose a suitable landing area and alternate landing sites for flexibility.

Failing to assess the landing area can lead to overlooking obstacles or hazards; continually assess the chosen landing area and be prepared to adjust the plan as conditions change.

Startle Response to Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Startle can delay recognition and response to a malfunction; maintain aircraft control, confirm the problem, and use the appropriate checklist.

Checklist Usage for Systems or Equipment Malfunctions

Skipping, misapplying, or losing place in a checklist can worsen a malfunction or leave it unresolved; maintain aircraft control, complete required memory items, and use the appropriate checklist methodically.

Undesired Aircraft State During Systems or Equipment Malfunctions

Incorrect handling or diagnosis of systems and equipment malfunctions can lead to a loss of control and increased system stress; seek training in recognizing and troubleshooting malfunctions in realistic scenarios.

Preoccupation with systems and equipment malfunctions can lead to undesired aircraft state changes due to distractions; maintain situational awareness, follow checklists, and delegate tasks if possible.

Survival Gear (Water, Clothing, and Shelter for 48 to 72 Hours)

Inadequate survival gear and lack of preparedness can lead to injury or illness; ensure adequate survival gear is on board and regularly review survival procedures.
Harsh environmental conditions can lead to hypothermia or heat exhaustion; plan suitable routes and carry appropriate water, clothing, and shelter.

Failing to regularly inspect survival gear can result in discovering it is unusable when needed; conduct regular inspections and replace items as necessary.

Use of a Ballistic Parachute System

Improper use and lack of familiarity with the system can result in an inability to deploy the parachute or in exceeding its limitations; understand the system's limitations and review the deployment procedures regularly.

Deploying the parachute at too high a speed or at too low an altitude can result in ineffective deployment, leading to a hard impact; understand the system's limitations and ensure deployment within specified parameters.
Failure to brief passengers on the parachute system can result in improper use during emergencies; brief passengers on the parachute system and their role during emergencies.

Use of an Emergency Auto-Land System

Inability to engage or properly operate the auto-land system can result in an unsafe landing; regularly review the procedures for using the auto-land system, understand its limitations, and follow the manufacturer's guidelines.

Failure to brief passengers on the auto-land system can result in improper use during emergencies; brief passengers on the auto-land system and their role during emergencies.

Startle Response to an Engine Failure After Liftoff (ASEL)

Startle after an engine failure can delay lowering the nose and maintaining control, leading to a stall; promptly establish the manufacturer-recommended airspeed and practice realistic responses.

Risk Examples for Multi-Engine Operations

Potential Engine Failure During the Takeoff Roll

An incomplete takeoff briefing can delay the decision to reject after an engine failure; brief reject criteria, directional control, and stopping actions before takeoff.
A sudden loss of power during the takeoff roll can result in a loss of directional control and a runway excursion; conduct comprehensive before-takeoff checks, verify performance parameters, and stay vigilant.

Delayed or improper response to engine failure during the takeoff roll can result in loss of directional control and increased likelihood of a runway excursion; seek training and maintain proficiency in engine failure procedures.

Potential Engine Failure After Liftoff

An incomplete departure briefing can delay the response to an engine failure after liftoff; brief aircraft control, engine-out procedures, and available landing options before takeoff.
Shutting down the wrong (operating) engine can cause a complete loss of thrust; verify actions, stay vigilant, and maintain proficiency in engine failure procedures.

Delayed or improper response to an engine failure after liftoff can reduce climb performance and increase the likelihood of a stall or loss of control; seek training and maintain proficiency in engine failure procedures.

Potential Engine Failure During Flight

Inability to maintain altitude after an engine failure can risk descending to unsafe altitudes; configure the airplane for minimum drag and maintain V_YSE to minimize sink rate (drift down).
A lack of a nearby suitable airport for an emergency landing can lead to an off-airfield landing; continuously monitor and plan for suitable alternate airports along the route.

Potential Engine Failure During an Approach

Delayed or improper response to an engine failure can reduce performance and increase the likelihood of losing control; seek training and maintain proficiency in engine failure procedures.
Inadvertently shutting down the wrong engine can result in a complete loss of thrust; verify critical actions, remain vigilant, and maintain proficiency in single-engine operations.

Maintaining a stabilized approach is more challenging with one engine inoperative, increasing the likelihood of losing control or a runway excursion during landing; configure the airplane appropriately for a single-engine approach and focus on aircraft control.

Possible Single-Engine Go-Around

Initiating a go-around with one engine inoperative can make achieving a climb difficult and lead to asymmetric thrust issues; ensure adequate single-engine climb performance and maintain proficiency in single-engine operations.

Delayed configuration changes or changes in the wrong sequence can lead to performance degradation (reduced climb rate, inability to maintain altitude, or increased drag); initiate configuration changes promptly and follow AFM/POH procedures.

Exceeding the Critical Angle of Attack with One Engine Inoperative

Intentional stall during single-engine operations can result in an inadvertent spin or loss of directional control (V_MC); do not practice stalls using asymmetrical thrust settings or with one engine inoperative.

Aggressive maneuvers during single-engine operations can lead to an inadvertent stall, spin, or loss of directional control (V_MC); use smooth control inputs and maintain proficiency in single-engine operations.

Loss of Directional Control with One Engine Inoperative

Aft CG during single-engine operations can increase V_MC due to decreased rudder authority to maintain directional control; avoid an aft CG and stay focused during single-engine operations.

Delayed or improper recovery procedures from loss of directional control can result in prolonged recovery, risking further altitude loss and loss of control; maintain proficiency in single-engine operations and follow AFM/POH procedures.

Flying Over Terrain that Exceeds the Single-Engine Service Ceiling

Engine failure over high terrain can result in an inability to maintain altitude, mandatory drift down, and risk of CFIT; plan routes considering the single-engine service ceiling.

Decreasing airspeed in an attempt to maintain altitude with one engine inoperative can lead to an inadvertent stall, spin, or loss of directional control (V_MC); configure the airplane for minimum drag and maintain V_YSE to minimize sink rate (drift down).

Fuel Management with One Engine Inoperative

Improper fuel-system management with one engine inoperative can cause fuel imbalance, starvation, or loss of usable fuel; follow aircraft-specific procedures and monitor fuel quantity, balance, and tank selection.

Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative During Training Maneuvers

Lack of airspeed awareness during single-engine operations can result in an inadvertent stall, spin, or loss of directional control (V_MC); increase focus and awareness during slow-speed maneuvers.
Aft CG during single-engine operations can decrease stall speed but increase V_MC, potentially leading to a loss of control; avoid an aft CG and stay focused during single-engine operations.

Risk Examples for Instrument Flight Training

Situations That Can Affect Physiology and Degrade Instrument Cross-Check

Fatigue or lack of sleep can impair cognitive function and degrade instrument cross-check; ensure adequate rest before flight and recognize signs of fatigue.
Hypoxia at high altitudes can affect decision-making and instrument monitoring; use supplemental oxygen as needed and monitor cabin altitude.

Spatial Disorientation and Optical Illusions

Rapid head movements can lead to spatial disorientation and loss of control; avoid abrupt head movements and rely on the flight instruments.
Optical illusions during approaches, such as false horizons or runway illusions, can mislead pilots; trust and verify the flight instruments and use approach lighting systems.

Flying Unfamiliar Aircraft or Operating with Unfamiliar Flight Displays

Unfamiliarity with aircraft-specific systems, flight displays, and avionics can lead to improper use and increased safety risks; seek training on new systems.
Difficulty interpreting flight displays can result in navigation errors and loss of situational awareness; review the manual and become familiar with display functionalities before flight.

Difference Between Approved and Non-Approved Navigation Devices

Using nonapproved devices or databases can provide inaccurate or unsuitable navigation information; verify that each device and database is approved for the intended operation.

Modes of Flight and Navigation Instruments, Including Failure Conditions

Misunderstanding flight modes or failing to recognize instrument failures can lead to navigation errors; verify and acknowledge all mode changes and review the operational manuals regularly.

Use of Navigation Databases

Using outdated navigation databases can cause navigation errors and non-compliance; regularly update and verify them.
Manually entering waypoints in certain IFR operations can cause navigational errors and non-compliance; ensure all waypoints are retrieved from an approved navigation database.

Operating With Inoperative Equipment

Inoperative instruments can increase workload and reduce situational awareness; ensure all required instruments are operational before flight.

Operating with Outdated Navigation Publications or Databases

Using outdated charts and databases can lead to navigational errors and non-compliance; regularly update navigation data from approved sources.

ATC Clearances and Procedures

Incomplete understanding of an ATC clearance can lead to an incorrect route, altitude, or procedure; read back the clearance, compare it with the expected route, and request clarification before compliance.

An inappropriate, incomplete, or incorrect clearance can reduce terrain, traffic, or procedure margins; verify the clearance against current information and question any unsafe or unclear instruction.

Accepting a clearance beyond aircraft performance or navigation capability can lead to noncompliance or loss of separation; compare each clearance with aircraft capability and advise ATC immediately when unable.
A clearance intended for a similar call sign can cause an unauthorized deviation; use the full call sign, listen for similar call signs, and verify uncertain clearances.

Missed or misunderstood ATC communications can cause deviations from clearances or published procedures; monitor the appropriate frequency, use standard phraseology, and verify uncertain instructions.

Recalculating Fuel Reserves if Assigned an Unanticipated EFC Time

Unanticipated EFC times can affect fuel calculations and lead to fuel shortages; recalculate fuel reserves and consider diverting if necessary.

Scenarios That Could Result in Minimum Fuel or an Emergency

Holding, reroutes, or deteriorating weather can reduce fuel to a minimum-fuel or emergency state; advise ATC of minimum fuel when no undue delay can be accepted, and declare an emergency when priority is required.

Scenarios That Could Lead to Holding

Weather and traffic congestion may result in holding, which can increase workload and fuel burn; plan for potential holding in preflight planning and have contingency plans ready.

Holding Entry and Wind Correction While Holding

Using incorrect holding pattern entries or failing to account for wind can cause drift and non-compliance with holding pattern procedures; use standard entry procedures and apply wind-correction techniques.

Traffic Avoidance Equipment and See-and-Avoid Responsibilities

Traffic displays and ATC advisories may omit traffic and create false confidence; understand equipment and service limitations and use see-and-avoid techniques whenever conditions permit.

Deviations From Instrument Procedures or ATC Instructions

Deviating from assigned or prescribed procedures can result in airspace violations and increased collision risk; strictly adhere to instrument procedures and communicate any necessary deviations with ATC.

Selecting a Navigation Frequency for an Instrument Approach

Incorrect navigation frequency selection can lead to navigation errors and loss of situational awareness; confirm the frequency with the approach plate and ensure proper tuning.

Aircraft Configuration During an Approach and Missed Approach

Improper configuration can lead to an unstable approach or missed approach; configure the aircraft properly using a checklist.

An Unstable Approach, Including Excessive Descent Rates

Unstable approaches can result in loss of control, hard landings, or runway excursions; stabilize the approach early and initiate a go-around if it becomes unstable.

Deteriorating Weather Conditions on Approach

Deteriorating weather can reduce visibility, increase workload, and compromise safety; always be mentally prepared to make a missed approach.

Operating Below the MDA or DA/DH Without Proper Visual References

Descending below MDA or DA/DH without the required visual references can result in CFIT; adhere strictly to approach minima and initiate a missed approach if visual references are not acquired.

Holding, Diverting, or Electing to Fly the Approach Again

Deciding whether to hold, divert, or attempt the approach again requires evaluating fuel status, alternate airport options, and current weather conditions; assess all factors carefully before making a decision.

Factors Leading to Executing a Missed Approach Before the MAP

Beginning a missed approach before the MAP can create obstacle-clearance and navigation risks; fly the final-approach lateral path to the MAP and then execute the published missed approach unless ATC assigns different instructions.

Prescribed Circling Approach Procedures

Failure to follow the prescribed circling approach procedures may result in unsafe maneuvering and inadequate obstacle clearance; adhere strictly to published procedures and minimum altitudes.

Executing a Circling Approach at Night or With Marginal Visibility

Performing a circling approach at night or in marginal visibility can lead to CFIT or disorientation; ensure navigation systems are configured for optimal situational awareness, use all available lighting aids, and be prepared to execute a missed approach.

Losing Visual Contact With an Identifiable Part of the Airport While Circling

Losing visual contact during a circling approach can lead to disorientation; know the appropriate procedures to follow and immediately execute a missed approach if visual references are lost.

Management of Altitude, Airspeed, or Distance While Circling

Excessive altitude, airspeed, or distance from the runway while circling can lead to an unstable approach or departure from the protected area; remain at or above circling MDA, use an appropriate radius, and go missed if a stabilized landing cannot be completed.

Executing a Missed Approach After the MAP While Circling

Executing a missed approach while circling requires strict adherence to established procedures to avoid traffic conflicts and CFIT; know the appropriate procedures to follow and communicate with ATC if necessary.

Use of Secondary Flight Displays When Primary Displays Have Failed

Loss of primary displays can lead to loss of situational awareness and control; maintain proficiency in operating secondary flight displays.

Maintaining Aircraft Control When Primary Flight Instruments Have Failed

Failure of primary flight instruments can cause disorientation and loss of aircraft control; regularly practice partial-panel operations and use all available resources to maintain orientation and control.

Attempting to Land From an Unstable Approach

Attempting to land from an unstable approach can result in runway excursions or hard landings; initiate a go-around if the approach is not stabilized.

Flying Below the Glidepath

Flying below the glidepath increases the risk of CFIT; adhere strictly to glidepath indicators and adjust the descent rate to maintain the correct approach path.

Transitioning From Instrument to Visual References for Landing

Poor timing and abrupt head movements can result in disorientation or runway excursions; shift focus smoothly from the instruments to visual cues.

Aircraft Configuration for Landing

Abrupt configuration changes can lead to an unstable approach; configure the aircraft as closely as possible for landing before starting the final descent and avoid large, last-minute configuration changes.

Loss of Communications

Equipment, coverage, or frequency-selection problems can interrupt ATC communications and increase workload; verify radios and frequencies, try alternate communication methods, and troubleshoot systematically.

Deviating from applicable lost-communications procedures can create traffic conflicts; apply 14 CFR 91.185, maintain situational awareness, and advise ATC as soon as communication is restored.

Risk Examples for Postflight Procedures

Postflight Inspection and Aircraft Discrepancies

Failing to inspect and document discrepancies can leave defects unresolved for later flights; complete the postflight inspection and record or report discrepancies through the appropriate process.

Activities and Distractions

Being rushed, distracted, or tired can lead to skipping postflight inspection items or failure to secure the airplane properly; stay focused and follow a postflight checklist.

Airport-Specific Security Procedures

Unfamiliarity with airport-specific security procedures can lead to unauthorized access or access-control violations; review and follow the applicable local procedures.

Disembarking Passengers Safely on the Ramp

Lack of passenger supervision can lead to passenger injuries or interference with aircraft operations; monitor passenger movements on the ramp and provide clear instructions.