Risk Management Examples

Overview of the Examples

The following risk management topics correlate with the CFI ACS and Instrument Rating ACS (pending CFII ACS), which require applicants to identify, assess, and mitigate risk effectively. Items in the ACS that are worded very similarly are combined for efficiency.

Implementing the Risk Management Process

The examples are written in a format that correlates to the 3P Model (perceive, process, and perform). For each example, at least one hazard and mitigation strategy is identified. Pilots should evaluate the likelihood and severity of the potential hazard for a particular situation or flight.

Risk Examples for the Fundamentals of Instructing

Recognizing and Accommodating Human Behavior

Not recognizing stress or anxiety can increase learner frustration; foster an open, supportive learning environment.
Not accommodating different learning styles can reduce instructional effectiveness; teaching methods should be adapted to suit each learner.

Barriers to Communication

Technical jargon can cause misunderstandings; use clear, simple language.
Environmental factors such as noise can inhibit communication; ensure a conducive learning environment and verify understanding through feedback.

Inadequate or Incomplete Instruction

Providing insufficient information can lead to gaps in knowledge; instructors should follow structured lesson plans.
Lack of practical examples hinders applying theory in real situations; incorporate examples and demonstrations into lessons.

Lack of Learner Motivation

Not understanding material relevance reduces motivation; explain its importance and application.
Lack of engagement can decrease learning outcomes; use interactive and varied teaching methods to maintain engagement.

Recognizing and Correcting Learner Errors

Not recognizing learner errors can lead to repeated mistakes; monitor learners closely and provide immediate feedback.
Providing vague feedback can confuse learners; give clear, specific guidance.

Selection of Teaching Method

A one-size-fits-all approach can hinder learning; tailor methods to individual needs.

Delivering an Assessment

Ambiguous or vague questions can lead to confusion and misinterpretation; create specific, clear, and direct questions.
Overly complex questions can overwhelm learners; design assessments that match learners’ skill levels.
Biased evaluation can cause potential learner frustration; standardize grading practices and ensure consistency.

Fulfilling Instructor Responsibilities

Neglecting professional duties can compromise safety and result in a loss of credibility; maintain professional standards and follow a code of ethics.
Not preparing for lessons can reduce instructional quality; use detailed lesson plans and prepare thoroughly for each lesson.

Exhibiting Professionalism

Unprofessional behavior can undermine learner trust and respect; consistently demonstrate professionalism and integrity.
Not setting a positive example can lead to potential conflicts; lead by example in all aspects of flight training and professional conduct.

Hazards Associated with Providing Flight Instruction

In-flight distractions can compromise safety; maintain vigilance.
Inadequate monitoring of learners’ actions can create potential safety issues; closely monitor and provide timely feedback during flight.
Not adhering to standard operating procedures (SOPs) increases the likelihood of accidents and non-compliance with regulations; enforce adherence to SOPs during all flight operations.

Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness During Flight Instruction

Distractions from learners can lead to errors; manage workload effectively.
Fatigue from long instructional hours decreases attention and increases the likelihood of mistakes; ensure adequate rest and manage instructional hours effectively.

Recognizing and Managing Hazards Arising from Human Behavior

Stress and anxiety can reduce the effectiveness of instruction; create a supportive learning environment and incorporate regular breaks.
Overconfidence in learners can lead to ignoring instructor guidance and taking unnecessary risks; ensure learners know their limitations.

Risk Examples for Technical Subjects

Aeromedical and Physiological Issues

Fatigue can reduce reaction times; stay well-rested and incorporate regular breaks.
Dehydration increases the likelihood of errors; stay well-hydrated and avoid excessive caffeine intake.
Medications can impair cognitive and motor functions; avoid flying under the influence.

Hazardous Attitudes

A macho attitude increases the likelihood of taking unnecessary risks; recognize when you are taking unnecessary risks.
Impulsivity increases the likelihood of making hasty decisions; think before acting.
Invulnerability increases the likelihood of ignoring risks; acknowledge that risks apply to you.
Resignation increases the likelihood of giving up easily; stay motivated and involved.

An anti-authority attitude increases the likelihood of rejecting rules or advice; follow the rules and advice.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, and disorientation increase the likelihood of errors, delayed or missed actions, and the inability to process information accurately and timely; minimize non-essential activities, follow the “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate” prioritization, and stay focused.

Confirmation and Expectation Bias Relating to Human Factors

Confirmation bias can lead to ignoring conflicting information, resulting in incorrect decisions; question assumptions and seek out disconfirming evidence.
Expectation bias can cause overlooking critical information because it doesn’t match expectations; review and validate all data objectively.

Distractions to Visual Scanning

Distractions by passengers, electronic devices, or weather reduce the ability to maintain a proper scan and increase collision risk; minimize unnecessary distractions and scan effectively.
Poor flight deck management makes it difficult to maintain consistent visual scanning and increases collision risk; manage tasks to minimize distractions and scan effectively.

Relaxed Intermediate Focal Distance

Too close of a focal distance can cause difficulty in spotting other aircraft and delayed reaction times; be mindful of maintaining proper visual focus distances and get regular eye check-ups.
Shifting focus too frequently between near and far objects results in momentary vision blur and delayed reaction times; be mindful of maintaining proper visual focus distances.

High Volume Operational Environments

High traffic density increases workload and the likelihood of mid-air collisions; maintain heightened situational awareness and use exterior lights to increase visibility.
Congested radio frequencies make it difficult to maintain clear communication; use standard phraseology and concise communication.

Collision Reaction Time

A high closure rate of converging aircraft leads to inadequate separation and increases the likelihood of mid-air collisions; increase vigilance and use traffic advisory systems if available.
Fatigue impacts reaction times, resulting in slower response to collision threats and increased likelihood of mid-air collisions; ensure adequate rest and manage fatigue levels.

Use of a Safety Pilot

Unclear division of responsibilities leads to a lack of visual scanning and over-reliance on the other pilot; define roles and responsibilities.
Neglecting to use a safety pilot when needed reduces overall situational awareness; bring a safety pilot on board and ensure they are actively engaged in visual scanning.

Confirmation or Expectation Bias as Related to Taxi Instructions

Confirmation bias causes selectively hearing taxi instructions that align with previous beliefs, leading to incorrect taxi routes; question assumptions and verify instructions with ATC.
Expectation bias results in acting on anticipated clearances based on past experience, missing changes in current instructions; stay vigilant for changes and review instructions carefully.

Entering or Crossing Runways

Miscommunication with ATC increases the likelihood of entering or crossing a runway without clearance; verify instructions with ATC, repeat back clearances, and ask for clarification if uncertain.
Not visually confirming the runway is clear can result in collisions with landing or departing aircraft; visually check for traffic before entering or crossing a runway, even if cleared by ATC.

Distraction while taxiing increases the likelihood of runway incursions; avoid non-essential tasks and focus attention outside the aircraft.

Runway Incursions During Night Operations

Difficulty in seeing taxiway markings and signs can lead to misidentifying taxiways or runways and increase the likelihood of runway incursions; maintain heightened situational awareness and reduce taxi speed.
Improper use of exterior lights increases the risk of not being seen; check the operation of all exterior lighting during preflight inspection and use external lighting when appropriate.

Low Visibility Taxi Operations

Poor visibility increases the likelihood of making a wrong turn or inadvertently entering a runway; use an airport diagram and taxi at reduced speeds.
Difficulty in following taxi instructions due to reduced visibility can lead to disorientation; seek ATC assistance when necessary.

Runway Incursion After Landing

Not clearing the runway quickly increases the likelihood of runway incursions; exit the runway promptly on the first available taxiway.
Airports with close parallel runways increase the likelihood of runway incursions due to proximity; maintain situational awareness and follow ATC instructions closely.

Operating on Taxiways Between Parallel Runways

Incorrect taxiway identification can lead to runway incursions or conflicts with aircraft on the taxiway; review airport diagrams.
Miscommunication with ATC can result in runway incursions or conflicts with aircraft on the taxiway; maintain clear, concise communication with ATC.

The Basic Aerodynamic Principles of Flight

Inadequate knowledge of aerodynamic concepts can lead to inconsistent handling and control of the aircraft; seek training in aerodynamic concepts.
Ignoring aerodynamic principles in practical applications compromises flight safety and efficiency; apply aerodynamic principles consistently during all phases of flight.

Detection of System Malfunctions or Failures

Unfamiliarity with aircraft systems can escalate minor issues into major failures; regularly review and understand aircraft systems.
Delayed detection of malfunctions poses potential safety hazards; maintain vigilance for abnormal indications during flight.

Management of a System Failure

Not following checklist procedures can lead to further system degradation; adhere strictly to checklist procedures.
Panic or stress during a system failure compromises decision-making and error management; develop stress management techniques and maintain composure.
Lack of troubleshooting knowledge hinders addressing malfunctions; review and practice procedures regularly

Monitoring and Management of Automated Systems (Navigation and Autoflight)

Insufficient use of automation increases workload and potential for manual handling errors; utilize automation effectively and understand its capabilities.
Excessive use of automation can lead to complacency and reduced situational awareness; regularly practice manual flying skills and understand the limitations of automated systems.

Not monitoring navigational performance or making improper mode selections can cause off-route deviations and potential navigation errors; regularly check navigational performance and cross-check with other navigation systems.

Providing Instruction in Unfamiliar Aircraft or with Unfamiliar Flight Displays

Unfamiliarity with aircraft-specific systems, flight displays, and avionics decreases instructional effectiveness and increases safety risks; prepare adequately before conducting instruction.

Use of Performance Charts, Tables, and Data

Misinterpreting performance data leads to inaccurate performance calculations and increased safety risks; maintain proficiency in using performance charts and verify calculations.
Not considering environmental factors can result in overestimating aircraft performance; account for environmental factors such as temperature and density altitude.

Airplane Limitations

Ignorance of published aircraft limitations increases safety risks; study the AFM/POH regularly and review vital limitations before each flight.
Operating beyond maximum speed or load factor can lead to structural failure and loss of control; monitor aircraft parameters closely and do not exceed the aircraft’s limitations.

Possible Differences Between Calculated Performance and Actual Performance

Variations in aircraft performance due to factors not accounted for in calculations can lead to unexpected performance shortfalls; take time to verify calculations and account for potential discrepancies.
Pilot technique and skill can impact actual performance; plan conservatively to account for variations.

Exceeding Weight Limits

Overloading the aircraft reduces performance; accurately calculate and adhere to weight limits.
Overloading the cargo area or improper weight distribution causes structural stress and imbalance during flight; ensure proper weight distribution and verify cargo and passenger weights.

Operating Outside of CG Limits

Incorrectly loading the aircraft can reduce aircraft stability or controllability; calculate and verify CG limits before flight.
Shifting of cargo during flight or not accounting for CG changes as fuel is burned reduces aircraft stability and increases the risk of stalling; understand how the CG will shift with fuel burn and secure all cargo properly.

Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight

Incorrect recalculations of weight and balance can result in incorrect CG and potential for overloading; accurately recalculate weight and balance with any changes.
Not accounting for changes in weight distribution can cause incorrect CG and potential for exceeding CG limits; follow proper loading procedures and ensure all weight changes are accounted for before flight.

Airspace Classes and Associated Requirements and Limitations

Misunderstanding airspace classifications can lead to airspace violations and potential conflicts with other aircraft; study and understand the different classes and types of airspace.
Lack of awareness of airspace boundaries increases the potential for unintended airspace incursions; use navigation aids and charts to maintain situational awareness of airspace boundaries.

Limitations of the Navigation System in Use

Not accounting for system limitations can lead to navigation errors and inability to perform required navigation tasks; thoroughly understand the navigation system’s capabilities and limitations.
Over-reliance on a single navigation system increases vulnerability to navigation failures; remain proficient in multiple navigational systems and utilize all available resources.

Loss of a Navigation Signal

Signal interference or equipment failure can cause navigation errors and inability to perform required navigation tasks; regularly check navigational performance and cross-check with other navigation systems.
Over-reliance on a single navigation source increases vulnerability to navigation failures; use multiple navigation sources.

Use of an Electronic Flight Bag (EFB)

Not updating EFB data can cause navigational errors and non-compliance; regularly update EFB data.
Distraction from primary flying tasks reduces situational awareness; ensure EFB use does not distract from primary flying tasks.

The Four Risk Factors in Navigation and Cross-Country Flight Planning

Pilot: Fatigue, stress, and poor planning increase navigation errors and the risk of getting lost; ensure rest and plan thoroughly.
Aircraft: Inoperative equipment, inadequate fuel planning, and improper loading reduce capabilities, risk fuel exhaustion, and impact performance or controllability; wait for equipment repairs if necessary, verify fuel calculations, and ensure proper loading.

Environment: Adverse weather, high terrain, and ATC restrictions cause route deviations and increased workload; review weather reports, plan appropriate routes, and have contingency plans.

External Pressures: Time constraints and passenger expectations can lead to poor decisions, increased stress, and higher potential for errors; set realistic expectations, allocate planning time, prioritize safety, and stay flexible.

Limitations of ATC Services

Overreliance on ATC for navigation and traffic avoidance can lead to inadequate situational awareness; remain independent in navigation and traffic avoidance.
Not planning for areas with limited ATC coverage increases the potential for navigational errors; understand ATC limitations.

Inadequate communication skills or knowledge of ATC procedures increases the likelihood of conflicts and pilot deviations; ensure clear, concise communication with ATC using proper phraseology.

Limitations of Electronic Planning Applications and Programs

Overreliance on electronic planning applications can cause complacency; regularly practice manual planning and navigation techniques.
User input errors can cause incorrect flight planning; double-check all inputs and use cross-checking methods.

Fuel Planning

Inaccurate fuel calculations or unexpected changes in fuel consumption can lead to running out of fuel; perform accurate fuel calculations and monitor fuel consumption during flight.
Not ensuring adequate fuel reserves can result in the inability to reach the destination or alternate airports; always include fuel reserves.

Use of Expired Charts, Manuals, or Publications

Relying on outdated charts and navigation data increases the likelihood of navigational errors and potential violations of airspace regulations; regularly update charts and navigation data, and verify the currency of information before each flight.
Using outdated manuals or publications increases safety risks; use reliable sources to obtain the latest updates.

Endorsements Without Appropriate Limitations or Expiration Dates

Issuing endorsements without clear limitations or expiration dates can lead to the inappropriate use of privileges by pilots and regulatory non-compliance; specify limitations and expiration dates on all endorsements.

Inoperative Equipment Specific to Night Operations

Not recognizing and reporting inoperative equipment increases risk during night operations; follow proper procedures for managing inoperative equipment and ensure all instruments and equipment required for night flight are operational.

Weather Considerations Specific to Night Operations

Limited visibility increases the likelihood of navigational errors and spatial disorientation; obtain detailed weather briefings.
Difficulty in assessing weather conditions increases the potential for inadvertent flight into adverse weather; use all available resources, including ATC assistance and onboard weather systems.

Collision Hazards During Night Operations

Reduced visibility of other aircraft, obstacles, and terrain increases the likelihood of mid-air collisions; use all available lighting and perform clearing turns.
Inadequate lighting increases the likelihood of accidents while taxiing and mid-air collisions; follow established collision avoidance procedures.

Glare from exterior or interior lights can cause visual confusion and increase the likelihood of mid-air collisions; adjust interior lighting to minimize glare.

Visual Illusions Specific to Night Operations and Night Adaptation

Visual illusions and spatial disorientation can cause misperceptions of altitude, distance, and orientation and increase the potential for loss of control; maintain proficiency in flying by reference to the flight instruments.

Not giving enough time for night adaptation of the eyes reduces the ability to see clearly in low-light conditions; allow sufficient time for eyes to adapt to darkness before flight.

Night Currency Versus Proficiency

Meeting minimum currency requirements without maintaining proficiency can reduce confidence and skill during night operations; regularly practice night flying beyond minimum requirements.

High Altitude Flight

Hypoxia impairs cognitive and motor functions and increases reaction times; be aware of the signs and symptoms of hypoxia, monitor cabin pressure, and use supplemental oxygen as required.
Rapid decompression can cause a potential loss of consciousness; use supplemental oxygen immediately.

Reduced physiological performance due to lower oxygen levels impairs performance and increases fatigue; maintain awareness of cabin altitude and use supplemental oxygen proactively.

Use of Supplemental Oxygen

Not using oxygen at required altitudes can lead to hypoxia and impaired decision-making; use oxygen as needed based on altitude and flight duration.
Equipment malfunctions or improper equipment use can result in hypoxia and potential in-flight medical emergencies; be aware of the signs and symptoms of hypoxia and regularly inspect and maintain oxygen equipment.

Management of Compressed Gas Containers

Improper storage or handling of oxygen cylinders can cause oxygen leaks, risk of fire, or explosion; follow proper storage and handling procedures.
Equipment leaks reduce the oxygen supply during flight; regularly inspect for leaks.

Combustion Hazards in an Oxygen-Rich Environment

Increased fire risk due to high oxygen concentration can cause rapid spread of fire, damage to aircraft systems, and potential injury to crew and passengers; avoid using flammable materials and follow strict no-smoking policies.

Malfunction of Pressurization System

Rapid decompression can cause hypoxia, an emergency descent, and potential structural
damage to the aircraft; conduct regular maintenance and inspections of the pressurization system.
Inability to maintain safe cabin pressure can lead to hypoxia and increased risk of emergencies; be prepared for emergency descent procedures and use supplemental oxygen.

Freezing Levels and Possible Icing Conditions

Not identifying freezing levels or possible icing conditions can result in unexpected icing encounters; always check weather briefings for freezing level information before flight.

Aircraft Limitations Related to Flight in Icing Conditions

Operating without proper de-icing equipment in known icing conditions can lead to critical safety hazards, including reduced aircraft performance and control issues; ensure the aircraft is equipped and certified for flight into known icing before operating in such environments.

Effects of High Density Altitude

Not considering the effects of density altitude on takeoff performance can result in longer takeoff rolls and reduced climb rates; use performance charts and adjust expectations accordingly.

Risk Examples for Preflight Preparation and Procedures

Proficiency Versus Currency

Meeting minimum currency requirements without maintaining proficiency decreases the ability to handle unexpected situations and increases the likelihood of errors; regularly train and practice beyond minimum requirements.

Flying Unfamiliar Aircraft or Operating with Unfamiliar Flight Displays

Unfamiliarity with aircraft-specific systems, flight displays, and avionics can lead to improper use and increased safety risks; seek training on new systems.

Inoperative Equipment Discovered Before Flight

Not recognizing and reporting inoperative equipment compromises flight safety and violates regulations; follow proper procedures for managing inoperative equipment.
Misjudging the significance of inoperative equipment can compromise flight safety; consult with maintenance or experienced personnel for proper evaluation.

Making the Go/No-Go and Continue/Divert Decisions

Fuel concerns, passenger discomfort, and deteriorating weather conditions can necessitate an inflight diversion; establish personal minimums and have alternate plans.
Not adhering to personal weather minimums can lead to inadequate preflight planning and decision-making; only adjust personal weather minimums when there is no pressure to fly.

Hazardous weather conditions, including known or forecast icing or turbulence aloft, can compromise safety; avoid flying in such conditions or plan alternate routes.

Use and Limitations of Weather Information

Overreliance on onboard weather equipment can result in encountering unanticipated weather; understand the limitations of onboard weather equipment.
Not checking current weather reports or updating weather information during flight increases the likelihood of weather-related incidents; regularly check for weather updates and utilize all available resources.

Misinterpreting aviation weather reports and forecasts can lead to incorrect weather-related decisions; review weather reports and forecasts thoroughly.

Use and Limitations of Weather Information

Overreliance on onboard weather equipment can result in encountering unanticipated weather; understand the limitations of onboard weather equipment and use it as a supplementary tool, not a primary source.
Misinterpreting aviation weather reports and forecasts can lead to incorrect weather-related decisions; seek training and ask for clarification when needed.

Not checking for updates or being unable to update weather information in flight increases the likelihood of unexpected weather encounters; regularly check for updates and utilize all available inflight weather resources.

Preflight Assessment (PAVE Checklist)

Pilot: Fatigue, stress, illness, and lack of proficiency impair decision-making, decrease reaction times, and reduce the ability to handle emergencies; ensure adequate rest, conduct self-assessment (I’M SAFE checklist), and maintain proficiency through regular training.

Aircraft: Mechanical issues, improper maintenance, and undetected damage can lead to in-flight mechanical failures, reduced performance, and compromised safety; conduct thorough preflight inspections, adhere to maintenance schedules, and address discrepancies before flight.

Environment: Adverse weather, unfamiliar airports, restricted airspace, challenging terrain, and obstacles increase the difficulty of navigating, workload, and potential for accidents; review weather reports and forecasts, plan routes considering airspace and terrain, and have contingency plans.

External Pressures: Time constraints, passenger expectations, and pressure to complete the flight compromise safety due to rushed decisions, increased stress, and a higher likelihood of errors; allocate sufficient time for preflight procedures and prioritize safety over schedule.

Aviation Security Concerns

Unauthorized access to the aircraft can lead to potential sabotage and theft; follow security protocols and secure the aircraft when unattended.
Not following TSA citizenship verification rules violates regulations and increases security risks; ensure adherence to TSA flight training rules and conduct regular compliance checks.

Use of Systems or Equipment

Misuse or overreliance on automation can reduce situational awareness and lead to improper flight management; use automation effectively and understand its capabilities.
Distraction from portable electronic devices can lead to errors and compromise safety; minimize the use of portable electronic devices during critical phases of flight.

Passenger Distractions

Passenger conversations can lead to a loss of situational awareness and an increased potential for errors; establish communication protocols before flight.

Propeller Safety

Not clearing the areas around the propeller and behind the airplane during engine start can lead to injuries or property damage; always check the surroundings before starting the engine.
Passengers lacking awareness of propeller hazards increase the risk of injury; escort passengers while on the ramp.

Taxiing over loose objects or tiedown ropes can potentially damage the propeller or persons or property behind the aircraft; always maintain situational awareness and avoid taxiing over loose objects or ropes.

Use of External Power Unit for Engine Starting

Using a ground power unit with incorrect voltage or amperage can damage the electrical system; always verify the voltage and amperage before connecting the ground power unit.

Limitations During Engine Starting

Battery limitations can cause inadequate power for engine start and potential battery damage; make sure the battery is adequately charged and within its operating limits.
Prolonged use of the starter can cause overheating and potential starter damage; adhere to starter limitations times and recommended cooling periods.

Inadequate engine lubrication can cause potential engine damage; monitor oil pressure gauges immediately after the engine starts and shut it down if pressure is not within limits.

Activities and Distractions While Taxiing

High workload while taxiing can lead to surface deviations and runway incursions; maintain focus and adhere to a sterile flight deck policy.
Distractions from passengers or equipment increase the likelihood of surface deviations and runway incursions; manage passenger interactions and secure all equipment before taxiing.

Confirmation or Expectation Bias as Related to Taxi Instructions

Confirmation bias causes selectively hearing taxi instructions that align with previous beliefs, leading to incorrect taxi routes; question assumptions and verify instructions with ATC.
Expectation bias results in acting on anticipated clearances based on past experience, missing changes in current instructions; stay vigilant for changes and review instructions carefully.

Taxi Route or Departure Runway Change

Increased workload can lead to surface deviations and runway incursions; prioritize tasks and delegate responsibilities when possible.
Not reviewing the taxi route change can lead to surface deviations and runway incursions; review and confirm the new taxi route immediately upon receiving instructions.

Runway Incursion While Taxiing

Misunderstanding ATC instructions can lead to runway incursions; use proper read-back techniques and clarify instructions with ATC if needed.
Distractions and complacency can lead to runway incursions; continuously maintain situational awareness and monitor aircraft position.

Division of Attention While Conducting Before Takeoff Checks

Not noticing that the aircraft is rolling forward can lead to potential collisions or pilot deviations; ensure brakes are held or locked and always monitor the area around the airplane.
Checklist interruptions can cause missing critical checklist items and improper aircraft configuration; minimize interruptions and ensure all checklist items are completed.

Unexpected Runway Changes by ATC

Not reviewing the planned departure route increases the likelihood of pilot deviations; review the planned departure and ask for extra time if necessary.
Not reviewing plans for an engine failure after takeoff can lead to taking inappropriate actions due to the state response; thoroughly review and brief engine failure procedures before takeoff.

Wake Turbulence During the Taxi and Takeoff Roll

Turbulence from preceding departures can result in a loss of control; when departing behind a larger aircraft, rotate before its rotation point and climb above its path until clear of the wake.

Potential Powerplant Failure or Other Malfunction During the Takeoff Roll

Delayed or improper response to powerplant failure can lead to runway excursions or reduced takeoff performance; review and brief emergency procedures before takeoff and monitor instrumentation closely.
Less than optimal surface or environmental conditions increase the risk of runway excursions and reduce takeoff performance; stay vigilant and assess the potential impact of all factors.

Risk Examples for Airport Operations

Communications in the Vicinity of an Airport

Miscommunication with ATC or other aircraft can lead to misunderstanding or missing critical communications; ask for confirmation and read back ATC instructions clearly.
Using improper phraseology or unclear communications increases safety risks and the likelihood of miscommunication; use standard phraseology and follow proper radio etiquette.

Radio frequency congestion can prevent transmitting or receiving critical communications; monitor multiple frequencies and wait for clear moments to transmit.

Deciding If and When to Declare an Emergency

Fear of repercussions associated with declaring an emergency can lead to inadequate support from ATC and emergency services; understand and adhere to guidelines for declaring an emergency.
Delayed decision-making increases the risk of escalation into a more severe emergency; practice emergency scenarios to build confidence in decision-making.

Collision Hazards Related to Airport Operations

High-density traffic at a non-towered airport increases the likelihood of mid-air collisions; remain alert, clear the area before turning, and make radio calls.
Simultaneous operations on parallel or intersecting runways increase the risk of runway incursions and collisions; maintain situational awareness and comply with ATC instructions or make radio calls.

Incorrect traffic pattern entry procedures can cause conflicts with aircraft already in the pattern; follow standard traffic pattern entry procedures.

Low-Altitude Maneuvering, Including Stall, Spin, or CFIT

Power lines, towers, and rapidly rising terrain increase the potential for CFIT; avoid unnecessary maneuvers near the ground.
Lack of airspeed or altitude awareness can lead to inadvertent CFIT, stall, spin, or loss of control; increase focus and awareness as altitude or airspeed decreases.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, and disorientation increase the likelihood of errors, delayed or missed actions, and the inability to process information accurately and timely; minimize non-essential activities, follow the “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate” prioritization, and stay focused.

Windshear and Wake Turbulence During Takeoffs and Landings

Windshear can cause sudden changes in wind direction or speed, potentially leading to stalls; maintain a safe speed for the conditions.
Wake turbulence can result in a loss of control; maintain proper spacing from preceding aircraft.

Selection of Runway for Takeoffs and Landings

Runway length may be inadequate for a safe takeoff or landing; select the most suitable runway based on preflight performance planning.
Surface conditions can reduce performance on soft or uneven surfaces; consider the surface condition during preflight performance planning.

Wind direction can present crosswind challenges or tailwind landings; select the most suitable runway based on the current winds.
Obstacles can present a potential for collision; ensure a clear departure or approach path.

Effects of the Environment and Runway Surface/Condition

Crosswind can cause difficulty in maintaining directional control and runway excursions; apply appropriate crosswind correction techniques.
Windshear can result in loss of control and increased takeoff or landing distance; maintain a safe speed for the conditions.
Tailwind increases takeoff or landing distance and runway excursions; align with the wind to minimize tailwind impacts.

Wake turbulence can result in a loss of control; maintain safe separation from preceding aircraft.
Surface conditions can make it difficult to maintain directional control or increase takeoff or landing distance; ensure the runway surface is suitable.

Planning for Abnormal Operations During Takeoff

Not planning for a rejected takeoff can result in a delayed response and runway excursions; review and brief emergency procedures before takeoff.
Not planning for an engine failure after liftoff can lead to a delayed response, loss of control, and an inability to make a safe landing; stay vigilant and prepared to execute emergency procedures.

Planning for Abnormal Operations During Landing

Not planning for a go-around/rejected landing can result in a delayed response, loss of control, and getting too low or slow to conduct a safe go-around; stay vigilant and prepared to execute a go-around/rejected landing.
Not planning for LAHSO increases the likelihood of conflicts and pilot deviations; calculate the required landing distance and ask for extra time if necessary.

Runway Incursion During Takeoffs and Landings

Misunderstanding ATC instructions such as a LUAW or LAHSO clearance increases the likelihood of runway incursions; use proper read-back techniques and clarify instructions with ATC if needed.
Lack of situational awareness during takeoff or landing increases the likelihood of runway incursions; scan the runway environment and remain attentive.

Not clearing the runway quickly after landing increases the likelihood of runway incursions; exit the runway promptly on the first available taxiway.

Forward Slip Operations to a Landing

Not observing aircraft limitations regarding flap settings and fuel levels increases the risk of tail stalls or fuel starvation; adhere to aircraft limitations and precautions.
A late or abrupt transition out of the slip can lead to a loss of directional control during the transition; use smooth control inputs.

Inadequate airspeed or pitch control results in excessive speed, increasing landing distance, or slowing down too much, risking an uncoordinated stall; maintain an appropriate airspeed and be aware of instrumentation errors during a slip.

Sideloading on Surface Contact During a Slip to a Landing

Misalignment during touchdown increases wear on the landing gear and potentially leads to a loss of directional control; ensure proper crosswind correction and maintain inputs during the landing roll.

Unstable Approach During a Slip to a Landing

Inconsistent airspeed or an improper glide path increases the likelihood of hard landings or runway overruns; apply energy management concepts to help maintain a stable approach profile and go around if necessary.

Power-Off 180° Accuracy Approach and Landing

Misjudging the glide path can lead to undershooting or overshooting the runway; maintain proficiency in power-off approaches to improve judgment.
Inadequate airspeed control can cause a stall or loss of control; maintain the best glide speed and avoid stretching the glide to reach a landing spot.

Forcing the airplane onto the runway can result in a hard landing or loss of directional control; ensure a smooth and proper flare technique.

Delayed Recognition of the Need for a Go-Around/Rejected Landing

Not recognizing the need for a go-around can lead to getting too low or slow to conduct a safe go-around; practice go-around scenarios to improve decision-making speed and confidence.

Delayed Performance of a Go-Around at Low Altitude

Low altitude considerations make it difficult to recover and climb out safely; ensure go-around procedures are initiated promptly at a safe altitude.
Slow speed considerations increase the risk of stalling if immediate corrective action is not taken; monitor airspeed closely and be ready to execute a go-around to avoid stalling.

Power Application During a Go-Around/Rejected Landing

Abrupt power application can cause a sudden pitch change and loss of control; apply power smoothly and promptly.
Delayed or inadequate power application can result in getting too slow, stalling, and losing control; anticipate the need for a go-around and be prepared to apply full power.

Configuring the Airplane During a Go-Around/Rejected Landing

Abrupt configuration changes can cause a sudden pitch change or loss of lift; make configuration changes smoothly and follow AFM/POH procedures.
Delayed configuration changes or making changes in the wrong sequence can cause a loss of performance (reduced climb rate and increased drag); initiate configuration changes promptly and follow AFM/POH procedures.

Managing a Go-Around/Rejected Landing After Accepting a LAHSO Clearance

Not preparing for a potential go-around after accepting a LAHSO clearance can cause confusion and delayed responses; brief all potential outcomes, including the need to maintain safe separation from aircraft and immediate ATC notification.

Risk Examples for Flight Maneuver and Stall Training

Division of Attention Between Aircraft Control and Orientation

Frequent changes in flight path can cause loss of precise aircraft control; use smooth, coordinated control inputs.
Fixating the eyes inside or outside the aircraft can lead to a loss of control or orientation; maintain a balanced scan between instruments and outside references.

Collision Hazards During Flight Maneuvers

High-density training areas increase the likelihood of mid-air collisions; perform clearing turns and make radio calls.
Busy airways or arrival routes can interfere with IFR operations; track the aircraft’s progress on a chart.
Abrupt altitude changes during maneuvers increase the likelihood of mid-air collisions; perform clearing turns and make radio calls.

Distractions while performing maneuvers increase the likelihood of mid-air collisions; minimize flight deck distractions and stay vigilant.

Low-Altitude Maneuvering, Including Stall, Spin, or CFIT

Power lines, towers, and rapidly rising terrain increase the potential for CFIT; avoid unnecessary maneuvers near the ground.
Lack of airspeed or altitude awareness can lead to inadvertent CFIT, stall, spin, or loss of control; increase focus and awareness as altitude or airspeed decreases.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, and disorientation increase the likelihood of errors, delayed or missed actions, and the inability to process information accurately and timely; minimize non-essential activities, follow the “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate” prioritization, and stay focused.

Uncoordinated Flight

Improper or inadequate control inputs leading to slips or skids can cause uncoordinated or cross-controlled stalls or spins; use smooth control inputs and monitor coordination.

Configuring the Airplane During Flight Training Maneuvers

Exceeding aircraft limitations during configuration changes or maneuvers increases stress or damage to the airframe, flaps, or landing gear; verify the proper configuration and make changes by following AFM/POH procedures.

Altitude Selection for Flight Training Maneuvers

Selecting too low an altitude can result in insufficient recovery time from an inadvertent loss of control or other emergency; choose an altitude that provides ample recovery time and clearance from obstacles.

Entry and Recovery Procedures for Flight Training Maneuvers

Distractions or rushing to complete entry or recovery procedures increase the likelihood of errors and omissions; minimize distractions and maintain focus.

Effects of Wind on Flight Maneuvers

Wind direction and speed changes can cause drift from the intended flight path; apply wind drift correction techniques.
Not entering with a tailwind (downwind) increases the likelihood of using an overly steep bank angle; enter maneuvers with a tailwind to establish the steepest bank initially.

Gusts and turbulence can result in abrupt altitude or attitude changes; use smooth, coordinated control inputs to compensate for wind effects.

Airframe or Airspeed Limitations During Flight Maneuvers

Exceeding structural limits can lead to structural failure and a loss of control; adhere to published airspeed limitations, particularly V_A.
High-speed flight in turbulent conditions increases airframe stress; adhere to published airspeed limitations, particularly V_NO and V_B.

Inappropriate aircraft configurations for the speed increase stress or damage to the airframe, flaps, or landing gear; configure the aircraft properly using a checklist.

Energy Management During Flight Maneuvers

Excessive pitch increases risks of stalling; make gradual control inputs.
Improper power management can lead to stalling or inefficient energy use; monitor aircraft performance parameters.
Not anticipating energy requirements results in insufficient altitude or airspeed; plan maneuvers with energy requirements in mind.

Rate and Radius of Turn with Confined Area Operations

Misjudging turn radius in confined areas can lead to a collision with obstacles or terrain; practice confined area operations and plan maneuvers carefully.
Excessive bank angles increase the risk of loss of altitude or an accelerated stall; use appropriate bank angles for the given speed and altitude.

Accelerated Stalls During Flight Maneuvers

High-speed maneuvers with excessive bank angles increase the likelihood of an accelerated stall; avoid aggressive maneuvers.
Abrupt control inputs increase the likelihood of an accelerated stall; use smooth, coordinated control inputs.
Distractions during maneuvering flight can lead to an accelerated stall; minimize distractions and focus on aircraft control.

Emergency Landing Considerations During Flight Maneuvers

Limited suitable landing areas increase the risk of damage to the aircraft and injury to occupants; choose the best available area for maneuvers and evaluate landing options early.
Obstacles such as trees and power lines increase the risk of collision during landing; scan the area thoroughly and maintain an awareness of obstacles during the descent and approach.

Unfavorable winds can result in a crosswind or tailwind landing, causing a hard landing or insufficient room to land safely; maintain an awareness of the wind direction and evaluate landing options early.

Inadvertent Slow Flight

Inadvertent slow flight increases the potential for a stall or spin; monitor airspeed and maintain awareness of flight conditions.

Unacknowledged Stall Warning Indications

Ignoring or misinterpreting stall warning indications can lead to an inadvertent stall and delayed recovery actions; maintain vigilance for stall warnings and reduce the angle of attack when they occur.

Stall Warning(s) During Normal Operations

An unintentional high angle of attack can cause an inadvertent stall; maintain vigilance for stall warnings and reduce the angle of attack when they occur.

Range, Limitations, and Characteristics of Airspeed and Stall Warning Indicators

False or no indications from stall warning devices increase the likelihood of a stall or spin; regularly test and verify the functionality of stall warning devices.
Limited effectiveness of stall warning systems in icing conditions or turbulence can lead to undetected stalls; be aware of flight conditions where stall warnings may be unreliable.

Over-reliance on stall warning systems can result in a failure to recognize the onset of a stall if the device malfunctions; cross-check with other indicators such as airspeed and angle of attack.

Effect of Environmental Elements Related to Stalls

Turbulence can cause unexpected changes in lift, potentially leading to stalls; maintain a safe speed for the conditions.
Windshear results in sudden changes in wind direction or speed, potentially leading to stalls; maintain a safe speed for the conditions.

Microbursts cause sudden and severe downdrafts, leading to rapid loss of altitude and control; avoid areas with potential for microbursts and be prepared for sudden changes in performance.
High-density altitude can result in the inability to climb or clear terrain, leading to a stall; be aware of high-density altitude effects and plan for reduced performance.

Lack of Familiarity with Airspeed Limitations and the Airspeed Indicator

Misunderstanding factors affecting stall speeds, such as weight, bank angle, and CG location, can lead to inadvertent stalls due to incorrect assumptions about stall speeds; understand the factors affecting stall speeds and use angle of attack indicators if available.

Lack of knowledge about aircraft airspeed limitations such as V_A and maximum flap speeds can result in exceeding safe operational limits, leading to structural damage; review and adhere to published airspeed limitations and understand how changes in weight affect V_A.

Exceeding Aircraft Limitations (Airspeed/Configuration Demo)

Exceeding maximum flap or gear speeds increases stress or damage to the airframe, flaps, or landing gear; confirm the airplane is within its speed limitations before making a configuration change.
Exceeding V_A can lead to structural damage during abrupt maneuvers; understand and respect V_A and avoid abrupt control inputs.

Flight Characteristics in the Region of Reversed Command

Operating in the region of reversed command, where slower speeds require more power to maintain altitude, can lead to a loss of control, difficulty maintaining altitude, and increased workload; seek training on the flight characteristics in the region of reversed command and avoid unnecessary operations in this region.

Maneuvering at Critically Slow Airspeeds

Uncoordinated maneuvers can result in uncoordinated or cross-controlled stalls or spins; use smooth control inputs and monitor coordination.
Increased load factor during maneuvers can cause an inadvertent stall due to higher stalling speeds; understand how load factors affect stall speed and avoid abrupt maneuvers at slow speeds.

Inadvertent Exceedance of the Critical Angle of Attack

Maneuvering during slow flight, aggressive maneuvers, and uncoordinated flight can lead to inadvertent stall, spin, and loss of control; maintain airspeed awareness, use smooth control inputs, and monitor coordination.

Factors that Could Lead to an Inadvertent Stall

High load factors during turns, abrupt control inputs, and uncoordinated flight can result in inadvertent stall, spin, and loss of control; maintain airspeed awareness, use smooth control inputs, and monitor coordination.

Stall Recovery Procedure

Delayed recognition or improper response to a stall indication can prolong the stall and increase altitude loss; respond promptly to stall warnings by first lowering the angle of attack.
Rushing the recovery or overcorrecting can lead to a secondary stall and increased altitude loss; use smooth control inputs during recovery.

Secondary Stalls, Accelerated Stalls, and Cross-Control Stalls

Rushing the recovery or overcorrecting can cause a secondary stall and increased altitude loss; use smooth control inputs during recovery.
Abrupt control inputs or maneuvers with excessive bank angles can lead to an accelerated stall and sudden loss of lift; avoid aggressive maneuvers and use smooth, coordinated control inputs.

Uncoordinated flight during a stall entry can cause a cross-controlled stall or spin; use smooth control inputs and monitor coordination during maneuvers.

Factors and Situations that Could Lead to Inadvertent Spin

A high angle of attack combined with uncoordinated flight can result in entry into a spin, significant altitude loss, and difficulty recovering; maintain awareness of airspeed and angle of attack and use smooth, coordinated control inputs.

Spin Recovery Procedure

Delayed recognition or improper recovery actions can lead to further loss of altitude and increased difficulty in recovering from a fully developed spin; respond promptly to spin indications and follow the spin recovery procedure in the AFM/POH.

Overcorrecting control inputs during spin recovery can result in entering into a spin in the opposite direction or a secondary stall and increased altitude loss; release rudder inputs when the rotation stops and avoid rushing the stall recovery.

Risk Examples for Basic Instrument Maneuvers

Instrument Flying Hazards

Not maintaining VFR conditions can lead to mid-air collisions and a loss of control; adhere to personal weather minimums and continuously monitor weather conditions.

Visual illusions and spatial disorientation can cause misperceptions of altitude, distance, and orientation, potentially leading to a loss of control; avoid sudden head movements and maintain proficiency in flying by reference to the flight instruments.

When to Seek Assistance or Declare an Emergency

Deteriorating weather conditions increase the likelihood of mid-air collisions and a loss of control; communicate with ATC and confess the nature of the situation.
Icing conditions can lead to a loss of control; use anti-ice/deice systems, including pitot heat, and seek assistance from ATC.

Collision Hazards Related to an Inadvertent Entry into IMC

Entering IMC or marginal weather conditions while on a VFR flight increases the likelihood of mid-air collisions; communicate with ATC and confess the nature of the situation.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, and disorientation increase the likelihood of errors, delayed or missed actions, and the inability to process information accurately and timely; minimize non-essential activities, follow the “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate” prioritization, and stay focused.

Fixation and Omission

Fixating on a single instrument or omitting instruments from the scan can lead to a loss of situational awareness and aircraft control; seek training and maintain proficiency in instrument flying techniques: cross-checking, interpretation, and control.

Instrument Interpretation

Misreading or misinterpreting flight instruments increases the likelihood of errors, spatial disorientation, and loss of control; understand the operation of each instrument and maintain proficiency in flying by reference to the flight instruments.

Control Application Solely by Reference to Instruments

Overcorrection and abrupt control movements can induce undesired aircraft attitudes and lead to a loss of control; practice smooth, coordinated inputs and maintain proficiency in the attitude instrument flying process: establish, trim, cross-check, and adjust.

Trimming the Aircraft

Improper trim adjustments when flying by reference to the flight instruments can increase workload and the likelihood of making errors; trim the aircraft in all phases of flight using a three-step process: pitch, power, trim.

Situations that Could Lead to a Loss of Control or Unusual Attitude

Distractions, spatial disorientation, and task saturation can lead to a loss of control and difficulty recovering to level flight; seek training on upset prevention and recovery techniques and task management skills.

Inadequate instrument scans can result in entry into unusual attitudes; seek training and maintain proficiency in instrument flying techniques: cross-checking, interpretation, and control.

Assessment of the Unusual Attitude

Misidentification or slow recognition of an unusual attitude can prolong recovery, risking further disorientation, altitude loss, and structural damage; seek training on unusual attitude recognition and recovery techniques in realistic scenarios.

Control Input Errors, Inducing Undesired Aircraft Attitudes

Overcorrection and abrupt control movements can induce undesired aircraft attitudes and lead to a loss of control; practice smooth, coordinated inputs and proper attitude correction techniques.

Operating Envelope Considerations for Unusual Attitudes

Over-stressing the aircraft during recovery maneuvers or encountering turbulence in clouds can cause structural damage and lead to a loss of control; adhere to recommended recovery procedures and avoid aggressive inputs.

Risk Examples for Emergency Operations

Collision Hazards Related to Emergency Operations

Preoccupation with handling the emergency can lead to mid-air collisions due to reduced situational awareness; delegate tasks and use all available resources to maintain situational awareness.

Not declaring an emergency and changing the flight path can lead to mid-air collisions due to a lack of coordination with other aircraft; communicate clearly with ATC and other aircraft about your intentions and maintain a constant scan for traffic.

Configuring the Airplane During an Emergency

Preoccupation with handling the emergency can lead to configuration errors due to distractions; maintain situational awareness, follow checklists, and delegate tasks when possible.

Low-Altitude Maneuvering, Including Stall, Spin, or CFIT

Distractions during emergency situations can lead to inadvertent CFIT, stall, spin, or loss of control; increase focus and awareness as altitude or airspeed decreases.

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation

Distractions, task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, and disorientation increase the likelihood of errors, delayed or missed actions, and the inability to process information accurately and timely; minimize non-essential activities, follow the “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate” prioritization, and stay focused.

Emergency Approach and Landing Considerations

Low altitude and a poor glide ratio can prevent an aircraft from reaching a safe landing area; maintain sufficient altitude for the aircraft’s glide ratio and plan emergency landing areas along the route.
Rugged terrain or obstacles can lead to CFIT while preoccupied with the emergency landing; choose routes with suitable emergency landing areas and scan for obstacles.

Adverse wind conditions can prevent an aircraft from reaching a safe landing area with adequate stopping distance; consider the wind direction and speed for the glide, the approach, and when selecting a landing area.

Following or Changing the Flightpath to the Selected Landing Area

The initial selection of landing area can result in selecting a site that is too far away to glide to or that has unseen hazards; quickly identify and choose a suitable landing area and alternate landing sites for flexibility.

Not assessing the landing area can result in not noticing obstacles or hazards; continually assess the chosen landing area and be prepared to alter the plan as conditions change.

Startle Response to Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Not maintaining proficiency in systems and equipment malfunctions increases the likelihood of an inappropriate or delayed response; maintain familiarity with abnormal and emergency procedure checklists.

Checklist Usage for Systems or Equipment Malfunctions

Not following checklist procedures or skipping steps can result in improper handling of malfunctions and incomplete troubleshooting; maintain familiarity with abnormal and emergency procedure checklists.

Lack of familiarity with abnormal and emergency procedure checklists can prolong the troubleshooting phase and increase the likelihood of errors; maintain familiarity with abnormal and emergency procedure checklists.

Undesired Aircraft State During Systems or Equipment Malfunctions

Incorrect handling or diagnosis of systems and equipment malfunctions can lead to a loss of control and increased system stress; seek training in recognizing and troubleshooting malfunctions in realistic scenarios.

Preoccupation with systems and equipment malfunctions can lead to undesired aircraft state changes due to distractions; maintain situational awareness, follow checklists, and delegate tasks if possible.

Survival Gear (Water, Clothing, and Shelter for 48 to 72 Hours)

Inadequate survival gear and lack of preparedness can lead to injury or illness; ensure adequate survival gear is onboard and regularly review survival procedures.
Harsh environmental conditions can lead to hypothermia or heat exhaustion; plan suitable routes and carry appropriate water, clothing, and shelter.

Not regularly inspecting survival gear could result in discovering it is unusable when needed; conduct regular inspections and replace items as necessary.

Use of a Ballistic Parachute System

Improper usage and lack of familiarity with the system can result in an inability to deploy the parachute or exceed limitations; understand the system’s limitations and review the deployment procedures regularly.

Deploying the parachute at too high a speed or low altitude can result in ineffective parachute deployment leading to a hard impact; understand the system’s limitations and ensure deployment within specified limitations.
Not briefing passengers on the parachute system can result in improper use during emergencies; brief passengers on the parachute system and their role during emergencies.

Use of an Emergency Auto-Land System

Inability to engage or improper operation of the auto-land system can result in an inability to land safely; regularly review the procedures for using the auto-land system, understand its limitations, and follow the manufacturer’s guidelines.

Not briefing passengers on the auto-land system can result in improper use during emergencies; brief passengers on the auto-land system and their role during emergencies.

Startle Response to an Engine Failure After Liftoff (ASEL)

Delayed or improper actions can result in a stall or loss of control; immediately pitch for best glide speed and and practice emergency scenarios regularly to build muscle memory and confidence.

Risk Examples for Multi-Engine Operations

Potential Engine Failure During the Takeoff Roll

Inadequate briefings on emergency procedures can result in delayed or improper response to an engine failure; review and brief emergency procedures before takeoff.
A sudden loss of power during the takeoff roll can result in a loss of directional control and a runway excursion; conduct comprehensive before-takeoff checks, verify performance parameters, and stay vigilant.

Delayed or improper response to engine failure during the takeoff roll can result in loss of directional control and increased likelihood of a runway excursion; seek training and maintain proficiency in engine failure procedures.

Potential Engine Failure After Lift-Off

Inadequate briefings on emergency procedures can result in delayed or improper response to an engine failure; review and brief emergency procedures before takeoff.
Shutting down the wrong (operating) engine can cause a complete loss of thrust; verify actions, stay vigilant, and maintain proficiency in engine failure procedures.

Delayed or improper response to an engine failure after lift-off can result in reduced climb performance and increased likelihood of a stall or loss of control; seek training and maintain proficiency in engine failure procedures.

Potential Engine Failure During Flight

Inability to maintain altitude after an engine failure can risk descending to unsafe altitudes; configure the airplane for minimum drag and maintain V_YSE for the least possible sink rate (drift down).
No nearby suitable airport for an emergency landing can lead to an off-airfield landing; continuously monitor and plan for suitable alternate airports along the route.

Potential Engine Failure During an Approach

Delayed or improper response to an engine failure can reduce performance and increase the likelihood of losing control; seek training and maintain proficiency in engine failure procedures.
Inadvertently shutting down the wrong engine can lead to a complete loss of thrust; verify critical actions, stay vigilant, and maintain proficiency in single-engine operations.

Maintaining a stabilized approach is more challenging with one engine inoperative, increasing the likelihood of losing control or a runway excursion during landing; configure the airplane appropriately for a single-engine approach and focus on aircraft control.

Possible Single-Engine Go-Around

Initiating a go-around with one engine inoperative can cause difficulty in achieving a climb and asymmetric thrust issues; ensure adequate single-engine climb performance and maintain proficiency in single-engine operations.

Delayed configuration changes or changes in the wrong sequence can lead to a loss of performance (reduced climb rate, inability to maintain altitude, or increased drag); initiate configuration changes promptly and follow AFM/POH procedures.

Exceeding the Critical Angle of Attack with One Engine Inoperative

Intentional stall during single-engine operations can result in an inadvertent spin or loss of directional control (V_MC); do not practice stalls using asymmetrical thrust settings or with one engine inoperative.

Aggressive maneuvers during single-engine operations can lead to an inadvertent stall, spin, or loss of directional control (V_MC); use smooth control inputs and maintain proficiency in single-engine operations.

Loss of Directional Control with One Engine Inoperative

Aft CG during single-engine operations can increase V_MC due to decreased rudder authority to maintain directional control; avoid an aft CG and stay focused during single-engine operations.

Delayed or improper recovery procedures from loss of directional control can result in prolonged recovery, risking further altitude loss and loss of control; maintain proficiency in single-engine operations and follow AFM/POH procedures.

Flying Over Terrain that Exceeds the Single Engine Service Ceiling

Engine failure over high terrain can result in an inability to maintain altitude, mandatory drift down, and risk of CFIT; plan routes considering the single-engine service ceiling.

Decreasing airspeed in an attempt to maintain altitude with one engine inoperative can lead to an inadvertent stall, spin, or loss of directional control (V_MC); configure the airplane for minimum drag and maintain V_YSE for the least possible sink rate (drift down).

Fuel Management with One Engine Inoperative

Uneven fuel consumption from left and right fuel tanks can cause a fuel imbalance and control issues; use reminders to monitor and manage fuel.
Inadequate fuel planning can result in insufficient fuel reserves, forced landing, and increased workload; conduct thorough preflight fuel planning and regularly change fuel tank selections.

Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative During Training Maneuvers

Lack of airspeed awareness during single-engine operations can result in an inadvertent stall, spin, or loss of directional control (V_MC); increase focus and awareness during slow-speed maneuvers.
Aft CG during single-engine operations can decrease stall speed but increase V_MC, potentially leading to a loss of control; avoid an aft CG and stay focused during single-engine operations.

Risk Examples for Instrument Flight Training

Situations That Can Affect Physiology and Degrade Instrument Cross-Check

Fatigue or lack of sleep can impair cognitive function and degrade instrument cross-check; ensure adequate rest before flight and recognize signs of fatigue.
Hypoxia at high altitudes can affect decision-making and instrument monitoring; use supplemental oxygen as needed and monitor cabin altitude.

Spatial Disorientation and Optical Illusions

Rapid head movements can lead to spatial disorientation and loss of control; avoid abrupt head movements and rely on the flight instruments.
Optical illusions during approaches, such as false horizons or runway illusions, can mislead pilots; trust and verify the flight instruments and use approach lighting systems.

Flying Unfamiliar Aircraft or Operating with Unfamiliar Flight Displays

Unfamiliarity with aircraft-specific systems, flight displays, and avionics can lead to improper use and increased safety risks; seek training on new systems.
Difficulty interpreting flight displays can result in navigation errors and loss of situational awareness; review the manual and become familiar with display functionalities before flight.

Difference Between Approved and Non-Approved Navigation Devices

Using non-approved devices and databases can result in inaccurate navigation information; ensure only approved devices and databases are used.

Modes of Flight and Navigation Instruments, Including Failure Conditions

Misunderstanding flight modes or not recognizing instrument failures can lead to navigation errors; verify and acknowledge all mode changes and review operational manuals regularly.

Use of Navigation Databases

Using outdated navigation databases can cause navigational errors and non-compliance; regularly update and verify navigation databases.
Manually entering waypoints in certain IFR operations can cause navigational errors and non-compliance; ensure all waypoints are retrieved from an approved navigation database.

Operating With Inoperative Equipment

Inoperative instruments can increase workload and reduce situational awareness; ensure all required instruments are operational before flight.

Operating With Outdated Navigation Publications or Databases

Using outdated charts and databases can cause navigational errors and non-compliance; regularly update navigation data using approved sources.

Recalculating Fuel Reserves if Assigned an Unanticipated EFC Time

Unanticipated EFC times can affect fuel calculations and lead to fuel shortages; recalculate fuel reserves and consider diverting if necessary.

Scenarios That Could Result in Minimum Fuel or an Emergency

Holding patterns or reroutes due to unexpected weather can lead to minimum fuel scenarios or emergencies; monitor fuel levels closely and declare minimum fuel to ATC when needed.

Scenarios That Could Lead to Holding

Weather and traffic congestion may result in holding, leading to increased workload and fuel burn; plan for potential holding in pre-flight planning and have contingency plans ready.

Holding Entry and Wind Correction While Holding

Using incorrect holding pattern entries or not correcting for wind can cause drift and non-compliance with holding pattern procedures; use standard entry procedures and apply wind correction techniques.

Deviations From Instrument Procedures or ATC Instructions

Deviating from assigned or prescribed procedures can result in airspace violations and increased collision risk; strictly adhere to instrument procedures and communicate any necessary deviations with ATC.

Selecting a Navigation Frequency for an Instrument Approach

Incorrect navigation frequency selection can lead to navigation errors and loss of situational awareness; confirm the frequency with the approach plate and ensure proper tuning.

Aircraft Configuration During an Approach and Missed Approach

Improper configuration can lead to an unstable approach or missed approach; configure the aircraft properly using a checklist.

An Unstable Approach, Including Excessive Descent Rates

Unstable approaches can result in a loss of control, hard landings, or runway excursions; stabilize the approach early and initiate a go-around if the approach becomes unstable.

Deteriorating Weather Conditions on Approach

Deteriorating weather can reduce visibility, increase workload, and compromise safety; always be mentally prepared to make a missed approach.

Operating Below the MDA or DA/DH Without Proper Visual References

Descending below MDA or DA/DH without the required visual references can result in CFIT; adhere strictly to approach minima and initiate a missed approach if visual references are not acquired.

Holding, Diverting, or Electing to Fly the Approach Again

Deciding whether to hold, divert, or attempt the approach again requires evaluating fuel status, alternate airport options, and current weather conditions; assess all factors carefully before making a decision.

Factors Leading to Executing a Missed Approach Before the MAP

Unexpected traffic, weather, and navigation problems can necessitate an early missed approach; know the appropriate procedures to follow and always be mentally prepared to make a missed approach.

Prescribed Circling Approach Procedures

Following prescribed circling approach procedures ensures safe maneuvering and obstacle clearance; adhere strictly to published procedures and minimum altitudes.

Executing a Circling Approach at Night or With Marginal Visibility

Performing a circling approach at night or in marginal visibility can lead to CFIT or disorientation; set up navigation systems for best situational awareness, use all available lighting aids, and be prepared to execute a missed approach.

Losing Visual Contact With an Identifiable Part of the Airport While Circling

Losing visual contact during a circling approach can lead to disorientation; know the appropriate procedures to follow and immediately execute a missed approach if visual references are lost.

Management of Altitude, Airspeed, or Distance While Circling

Proper management of altitude, airspeed, and distance is crucial to avoid CFIT or a loss of control; maintain heightened situational awareness to maintain control and compliance with procedures.

Executing a Missed Approach After the MAP While Circling

Executing a missed approach while circling requires strict adherence to established procedures to avoid traffic conflicts and CFIT; know the appropriate procedures to follow and communicate with ATC if necessary.

Use of Secondary Flight Displays When Primary Displays Have Failed

Loss of primary displays can lead to loss of situational awareness and control; maintain proficiency in operating secondary flight displays.

Maintaining Aircraft Control When Primary Flight Instruments Have Failed

Failure of primary flight instruments can cause disorientation and loss of aircraft control; practice partial panel operations regularly and use all available resources to maintain orientation and control.

Attempting to Land From an Unstable Approach

Attempting to land from an unstable approach can result in runway excursions or hard landings; initiate a go-around if the approach is not stabilized.

Flying Below the Glidepath

Flying below the glidepath increases the risk of CFIT; adhere strictly to glidepath indicators and adjust descent rate to maintain the correct approach path.

Transitioning From Instrument to Visual References for Landing

Poor timing and abrupt head movements can result in disorientation or runway excursions; shift focus smoothly from the instruments to visual cues.

Aircraft Configuration for Landing

Abrupt configuration changes can lead to an unstable approach; configure the aircraft as closely as possible for landing before starting the final descent and avoid large, last-minute configuration changes.

Risk Examples for Postflight Procedures

Activities and Distractions

Being rushed, distracted, or tired can lead to skipping postflight inspection items or failure to secure the airplane properly; stay focused and follow a postflight checklist.

Airport-Specific Security Procedures

Not knowing or following airport-specific security protocols can threaten safety; familiarize yourself with airport security procedures and follow established protocols.

Disembarking Passengers Safely on the Ramp

Lack of passenger supervision can lead to passenger injuries or interference with aircraft operations; monitor passenger movements on the ramp and provide clear instructions.