Recent Flight Experience Requirements

References: 14 CFR 61.56, 14 CFR 61.57

Flight Review

Unless they meet one of the exemptions outlined in 14 CFR 61.56, pilots may not act as PIC unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months, they have satisfactorily accomplished a flight review in an aircraft for which they are rated.

Related: Conduct of a Flight Review

Aircraft and Airport Security

If suspicious activity is witnessed, pilots should call the 24-hour security hotline. The TSA staffs the hotline as part of the AOPA’s Airport Watch program. For criminal activity that requires immediate action, 9-1-1 should be called first.

Security Hotline: 1-866-GA-SECURE (1-866-427-3287)

Suspicious behaviors include:

• Excessive interest in restricted airspace or ground structures.
• Unusual interest regarding aircraft capabilities.
• Aeronautical knowledge that is inconsistent with the airman’s credentials.
• Sudden termination of the client or customer’s instruction.
• Damage to aircraft locks.
• Unusual aircraft modifications, such as:
  • Using tape or paint to change the appearance of a tail number.
  • Strengthening of the landing gear.
  • Removing seats or interior equipment.
• Dangerous or hazardous cargo loaded into an aircraft.

Runway Markings

References: AIM 2-3-3, AC 150/5340-1

Chevrons are yellow markings aligned with the runway that show pavement that is unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing.

Demarcation bars delineate displaced runway thresholds from unusable pavement, such as blast pads, slipways, or taxiways that precede the threshold. A demarcation bar is yellow since it is not located on the runway.

Threshold bars delineate the beginning of runways when a threshold has been relocated or displaced.

Threshold markings identify the beginning of the runway that is available for landing. Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. These markings have eight stripes of uniform dimensions, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width. Visual runways, those without an instrument approach, do not have threshold markings.

Designation markings are numbers and letters that identify a runway. The number is determined from the approach direction. It is based on the magnetic heading of the runway centerline. The letters differentiate between left (L), right (R), or center (C) parallel runways, as applicable.

Centerline markings identify the center of the runway and provide alignment guidance to aircraft during takeoff and landing. The stripes are 120′ in length with 80′ gaps.

Side stripe markings consist of continuous white stripes on each side of the runway. They provide a visual contrast between the runway pavement and the ground.

Shoulder markings consist of continuous yellow stripes, which are used when needed to identify pavement next to the runway that is not intended for aircraft use.

Touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown zone for aircraft on a precision instrument approach. The markings consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway centerline. They are spaced in 500′ increments, measured from the beginning of the runway.

Aiming point markings serve as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the runway centerline and approximately 1,000′ from the landing threshold. Depending on the runway length, the markings are 100′ to 150′ in length.

Taxiway Markings

References: AIM 2-3-4, AC 150/5340-1

Enhanced taxiway centerline markings are used at larger airports to warn pilots that they are approaching a runway holding position marking. These markings consist of two parallel, yellow-dashed lines located on either side of the normal taxiway centerline beginning approximately 150′ before a runway holding position marking.

Normal taxiway centerline markings are a single continuous yellow line. Ideally, the aircraft should be kept centered over this line during taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with other aircraft or objects.

Surface-painted location signs are located on the right side of the centerline to assist the pilot in confirming the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These markings have a black background with a yellow inscription.

Geographic position markings are located at points along low-visibility taxi routes to identify a taxiing aircraft’s location during low-visibility operations. These markings consist of an outer white or black ring with a pink circle in the middle. Either a number or a number and letter are positioned in the center of the pink circle.

Surface-painted taxiway direction signs are provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway direction signs at intersections or when necessary to supplement such signs. These markings have a yellow background with a black inscription.

Edge markings help define the taxiway’s edge, primarily when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. These markings typically consist of continuous double yellow lines. Dashed lines are used when the adjoining pavement is intended to be used by aircraft (e.g., ramps and run-up areas).

Shoulder markings are yellow stripes that are used where conditions exist, such as taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft. A taxiway shoulder is not intended for use by aircraft.

Holding Position Markings

References: AIM 2-3-5, AC 150/5340-1

Runway holding position markings indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway. These markings consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, extending across the taxiway or runway width. The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold.

Runway holding position markings may be encountered:

• On taxiways where an aircraft is supposed to stop when it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway.
• On runways that ATC uses for land and hold short operations (LAHSO) or taxiing operations.
• On taxiways located in runway approach areas are used at some airports where a taxiway is located in an approach or departure area. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of a runway approach or departure area (e.g., “22-APCH” sign).

Example Instructions: "Hold short of Runway 32 approach area."

Holding position markings for instrument landing system (ILS) critical areas consist of two solid yellow lines (horizontal) connected by pairs of solid lines (vertical) extending across the width of the taxiway. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of an ILS critical area.

Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single, yellow dashed line extending across the taxiway’s width.

Airport Signs

References: AIM 2-3-7, AC 150/5340-18

Mandatory instruction signs have a red background with a white inscription. They are used to denote an entrance to a runway or critical area, and areas where an aircraft is prohibited from entering.

Typical mandatory signs and applications are:

• Runway holding position signs
• Runway approach area holding position signs
• ILS critical area holding position signs
• No entry signs

Location signs typically have a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border. They are used to identify where the aircraft is located.

Typical location sign applications are:

• Taxiway location signs
• Runway location signs
• Runway boundary signs (yellow background with a black graphic depicting the runway holding position marking)
• ILS critical area boundary signs (yellow background with a black graphic depicting the ILS holding position marking)

Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn.

Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a destination on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction to a destination. Destinations commonly shown are runways, terminals, cargo areas, and FBOs.

Information signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. These signs provide the pilot with information such as radio frequencies and noise abatement procedures.

Runway distance remaining signs have a black background with a white numeral inscription and may be installed along one or both sides of the runway. The number on the signs indicates the distance, in thousands of feet, of runway remaining.

Visual Glideslope Indicators

References: 14 CFR 91.129, AIM 2-1-2, AC 150/5340-30

Visual glideslope indicators are located on the left side of some runways to provide the pilot with glidepath information that can be used for day or night approaches.

Note: In Class B, C, and D airspace, pilots who are approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator must maintain an altitude at or above the glidepath until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.

Visual Approach Slope Indicator

The visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is a system of lights arranged to provide a visual descent path to a runway. These lights are visible from about 3–5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night.

The VASI’s visual descent path provides safe obstruction clearance within plus or minus 10° of the extended runway centerline and out to 4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent using the VASI should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the extended runway centerline.

Two-bar VASI installations are the most common type. They provide one visual glidepath, which is typically set at 3°. At some locations, the angle may be as high as 4.5° to give proper obstacle clearance.

Three-bar VASI installations provide two visual glidepaths. The lower glidepath is provided by the near and middle bars and is typically set at 3°, while the upper glidepath, provided by the middle and far bars, is normally 1/4° higher. This higher glidepath is intended for use only by high-cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold crossing height.

An easy way to remember VASI indications:

• “Red over white, you’re alright.”
• “White over white, you’ll fly all night.”
• “Red over red, you’re dead.”

Precision Approach Path Indicator

The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses light units similar to the VASI but is installed in a single row of either two or four light units. These lights are visible from about 5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night.

Safe obstruction clearance is typically provided within plus or minus 10° of the extended runway centerline and to 3.4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent, using the PAPI, should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the runway.

The visual glidepath is typically set at 3°, although the angle may be as high as 4.5° at some locations to give proper obstacle clearance.

Hot Spots

References: Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide, Chart Supplements

A hot spot is a location in an airport movement area with a history or potential risk of collision or runway incursion, where pilots’ and drivers’ heightened attention is necessary. They are typically located at confusing taxiway and runway intersections.

Runway Incursions

Reference: AC 91-73

A runway incursion is any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.

A surface incident is similar to a runway incursion but occurs on a designated movement area (not a runway) and affects or could affect the safety of flight.

Types of Runway Incursions

• Pilot Deviations: Crossing a runway hold marking without a clearance or taking off or landing without a clearance.
• Operational Incidents: Clearing an aircraft onto a runway while another aircraft is landing on the same runway.
• Vehicle Deviations: Crossing a runway hold marking without ATC clearance.

Runway Incursion Severity

Runway Incursion Statistics

In the U.S., an average of three runway incursions occur daily. According to FAA data, approximately 65% of all runway incursions are caused by pilots, of which GA pilots cause 75%.

Wrong Runway Departures

Wrong runway departures are a subset of runway incursions. No one intends to take off on the wrong runway, but it still happens.

Major contributing factors to wrong runway departures:

• Short taxi distance (less time to spot errors)
• Single runway airports
• A single taxiway leading to multiple runway thresholds
• The close proximity of multiple runway thresholds

Best practices for preventing wrong runway departures:

• Brief the entire taxi route to the departure runway using the airport diagram.
• If uncertain about the taxi route, request progressive taxi instructions.
• Verify each airport marking and sign along the taxi route.
• Avoid distractions while the aircraft is moving (“heads up, eyes out”).
• Set the heading bug to the runway heading and verify it matches the aircraft heading before takeoff.

Wrong Direction Departures from an Intersection

A wrong direction departure occurs when a pilot is cleared for an intersection takeoff and then departs in the wrong direction.

Major contributing factors to wrong-direction departures:

• Feeling rushed into the situation
• Misinterpreting airport markings and signs
• Not being fully prepared and ready when reaching the hold short line

Best practices for preventing wrong direction departures:

• Visualize the runway holding position sign as the runway (e.g., the runway number on the left side of the sign is to the pilot’s left).
• At a towered airport, do not confuse an instruction to turn after departure with a turn onto the runway.

Best Practices for Avoiding Surface Deviations

The best way to avoid a runway incursion is to make sure you understand (1) where you are at, (2) what you have been cleared to do, and (3) where you are going.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): GA pilots should develop and adhere to SOPs based on regulations and industry best practices. A sterile cockpit and proper use of aircraft lights should be defined in every pilot’s set procedures.

Situational Awareness (SA): Pilots can establish SA by reviewing the expected taxi route and hot spot locations. Pilots can maintain SA by avoiding heads-down time when taxiing.

Proficiency: Recurrent training and continuing education lead to proficiency. A flight to a towered airport with an experienced instructor is a good way to learn and practice.

Point and Acknowledge: Pointing at and calling out location signs and markings can help a pilot maintain focus and attention.

The Risk Management Process

1. Identify Hazards (Perceive): Identify conditions, events, objects, or circumstances that could lead to or contribute to an accident.

2. Assess the Risk (Process): Determine the probability and severity of an accident that could result from the hazards.

3. Mitigate the Risk (Perform): Investigate strategies and tools that reduce, mitigate, or eliminate the risk.

Step 1: Identifying Hazards (Perceive)

Hazards can be identified using the following checklists:

• PAVE: Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures.
• I’M SAFE: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, and Emotion.

Step 2: Assessing Risk (Process)

Pilots can differentiate, in advance, between low-risk and high-risk flights by using a risk assessment matrix or a more sophisticated flight risk assessment tool (FRAT).

Risk Assessment Matrix

A risk assessment matrix assesses two items: the likelihood (probability) of an event occurring and the severity (consequence) of that event.

Likelihood of an Event

Likelihood taking a situation and determining the probability of its occurrence.

• Probable: An event will occur several times.
• Occasional: An event will probably occur sometime.
• Remote: An event is unlikely to occur, but is possible.
• Improbable: An event is highly unlikely to occur.

Example: When flying in marginal visual flight rules (MVFR) conditions, the likelihood of encountering potential IMC might be classified as “occasional.”

Severity of an Event

The severity or consequence of a pilot’s actions can relate to injury or damage.

• Catastrophic: Results in fatalities/total loss (damage beyond repair).
• Critical: Severe injury/major damage.
• Marginal: Minor injury/minor damage.
• Negligible: Less than minor injury/less than minor damage.

Example: The hazard of a nick in a propeller poses a risk. If the damaged prop is exposed to the constant vibration of normal engine operation, there is a high risk that it could fracture. The severity of the damage caused to the engine, airframe, and occupants can be classified as “catastrophic.”

Flight Risk Assessment Tools

A flight risk assessment tool (FRAT) enables pilots to identify hazards and can visually depict risk.

Benefits of using a FRAT:

• It shows how an accumulation of hazards increases the total flight risk.
• It requires pilots to think about hazards. It is a teaching and learning tool.

Related: Flight Risk Assessment Tool

Step 3: Mitigating Risk (Perform)

Risk can be mitigated by:

• Maintaining situational awareness.
• Establishing and adhering to personal minimums.
• Examining the common causes of aircraft accidents.
• Understanding human factors and biases in aviation.
• Applying the principles of single-pilot resource management.
• Using a structured framework for decision-making, including the 5P, 3P, and DECIDE models.

The "3D Rule" of Risk Mitigation
Delay, Divert, or Drive.

Example: A pilot flying in MVFR conditions has several ways to reduce risk: delay the flight until the weather improves, fly with a friend who is instrument-rated (“divert” the plan), or drive.

Single-Pilot Resource Management

Single-pilot resource management (SRM) is the art and science of managing all the resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (before and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.

SRM includes the concepts of:

• Aeronautical decision-making (ADM)
• Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) awareness
• Situational awareness
• Flight deck management

SRM training can help a pilot accurately assess and manage risk and make timely decisions.

Related:

• Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance: Controlled Flight into Terrain
• Flight Deck Management

Use of Resources

Pilots must be aware of the resources found both inside and outside the flight deck to make informed decisions.

Internal resources are found in the airplane. They include the avionics, autopilot, checklists, the AFM/POH, and passengers.

External resources available during flight include ATC and flight service stations (FSS). ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. An FSS can provide updates on weather and airport conditions.

Situational Awareness

Situational awareness is the accurate perception of operational and environmental factors that affect the flight. It is a logical analysis based on the four fundamental risk elements (pilot, aircraft, environment, and external pressures).

Situational Awareness = Knowing what is going on and what is coming next.

When situationally aware, a pilot has an overview of the total operation and can proactively manage the flight. A pilot with poor situational awareness operates in a reactive manner, responding to unexpected events as they unfold.

Best Practices for Maintaining Situational Awareness

• Develop strong task management skills.
• Plan ahead (e.g., review the airport diagram before taxiing and landing).
• Regularly pause to make a quick mental assessment of the flight environment.
• Consciously raise awareness in critical phases of flight and during ground operations.
• Use advanced avionics properly (avoid complacency and excessive “heads-down” time).

Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness

• Unfamiliar or inoperative equipment can increase pilot workload.
• Fatigue and stress can reduce short-term performance and memory.
• Unexpected events can cause fixation on a single item rather than the overall situation.
• Complacency, interruptions, and distractions can divert attention away from critical tasks.

Related: Flight Deck Management: Errors in Task Management

Aeronautical Decision-Making

Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

ADM = What pilots intend to do based on the information they have.

The Decision-Making Process

1. Define the Problem: A problem is perceived by the senses and recognized through insight and experience. An objective analysis of all available information is used to determine the exact nature and severity of the problem.

2. Choose a Course of Action: The pilot determines the actions that may be taken to resolve the situation in the time available. The expected outcome of each action should be considered, and the risks assessed before the pilot decides on a response.

3. Implement the Decision and Evaluate the Outcome: After a decision is reached and a course of action is implemented, the pilot continues to evaluate the outcome of the decision to ensure that it produces the desired result.

Operational Pitfalls

Peer Pressure: Poor decision-making may be based on an emotional response to peers, rather than evaluating a situation objectively.

Mindset: A pilot displays a mindset through an inability to recognize and cope with changes in a given situation.

Plan Continuation Bias (“Get-There-Itis”): This disposition impairs pilot judgment through a fixation on the original goal or destination, combined with a disregard for an alternative course of action.

Duck-Under Syndrome: A pilot may be tempted to make it into an airport by descending below minimums during an approach.

Scud Running: This occurs when a pilot tries to maintain visual contact with the terrain at low altitudes while instrument conditions exist.

Continuing Visual Flight into Instrument Conditions: Spatial disorientation or collision with ground/obstacles may occur when a pilot continues VFR into instrument conditions.

Getting Behind the Aircraft: This pitfall can be caused by allowing events to control pilot actions. A constant state of surprise at what happens next may be exhibited when the pilot is getting behind the aircraft.

Loss of Positional or Situational Awareness: When a pilot gets behind the aircraft, a loss of positional or situational awareness may result.

Operating Without Adequate Fuel Reserves: Ignoring minimum fuel reserve requirements is generally the result of overconfidence, lack of flight planning, or disregarding applicable regulations.

Descent Below the Minimum En Route Altitude: The duck-under syndrome, as mentioned above, can also occur during the en route portion of an IFR flight.

Flying Outside the Envelope: The assumed high-performance capability of a particular aircraft may cause a mistaken belief that it can meet the demands imposed by a pilot’s overestimated flying skills.

Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight Inspections, and Checklists: A pilot may rely on short- and long-term memory, regular flying skills, and familiar routes instead of established procedures and published checklists.

The Poor Judgment Chain

Most accidents have multiple causal factors, which can be thought of as links in a chain. The poor judgment chain (PJC) describes the series of mistakes that lead to accidents and incidents related to human factors.

Basic principles of the PJC:

• One bad decision often leads to another.
• As the string of bad decisions grows, the number of safe alternatives available to the pilot diminishes.
• Breaking one link in the chain is all that is usually necessary to change the outcome.

Automation Management

Effective automation management allows the pilot to assess, detect, and correct errors; thus, it helps prevent accidents.

Levels of Automation

While there is no industry consensus, the levels of automation can be defined as:

1. No Automation: Flight director OFF; Autopilot OFF.
2. Basic Guidance: Flight director ON; Autopilot OFF.
3. Simple Automation: Autopilot in roll or heading mode; Altitude hold or climb/descent mode.
4. Advanced Automation: Autopilot guided by a GPS or FMS; Altitude hold.

No one level of automation is appropriate for all flight situations.

Using the Appropriate Level of Automation

Workload typically decreases at higher levels of automation. However, there are times when manually flying can be more beneficial.

Examples:

• A pilot’s lack of familiarity with an automated system would make it easier to disconnect the system and manually fly an approach.
• Pilots should consider stepping down a level in automation when things go wrong or get complicated.

Active Automation Management

Automation should be managed actively rather than passively (“set and forget”). Active automation management enhances situational awareness and helps to identify automation failures.

To actively manage the automation, pilots must:

• Cross-reference the data provided by various systems.
• Monitor the flight progress (e.g., waypoints and fuel burn).
• Know how the technology normally performs and its failure modes.
• Be ready to take action if the system does not perform as expected.

Autopilot Management

Managing the autopilot means knowing which modes are engaged and which are armed to engage.

Autopilot management errors can be reduced by:

• Verifying each button press is recognized by the system.
• Making callouts after every mode change and when arming the system.

Caution: Anytime the autopilot is disconnected, the pilot should have a firm grip on the controls to counter any unexpected trim forces.

Automation Management Errors

Humans are not well suited for monitoring automated systems. Extended periods of performing trivial tasks often lead to daydreaming or complacency.

Monitoring errors can be reduced by:

• Guarding against fixation.
• Making consistent verifications and callouts.
• Scanning the instruments in the same way as when hand flying.

Related: Risk Management: Automation Bias

Task Management

Effective task management ensures that essential operations are accomplished without overloading the pilot.

Best Practices for Task Management

• Use automation judiciously.
• Prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating.
• Anticipate the workload associated with the next phase of flight.
• Be wary of inoperative equipment. An inoperative autopilot or navigation instrument can vastly increase workload.

Sterile Cockpit Rule

Reference: 14 CFR 121.542

Commonly known as the sterile cockpit rule, air carrier pilots must refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight.

Critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000′ except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include things like eating or chatting.

The equivalent sterile cockpit altitude for light aircraft can be defined as 2,500′ AGL or at any altitude within 10 minutes of landing.

Checklist Usage

Reference: SAFO 17006

Checklists act as a systematic guide, ensuring that all procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and nothing is omitted. Furthermore, they standardize flight operations, thereby minimizing the chances of human error.

Related:

• Inflight Emergencies: Checklist Usage During Emergencies
• Pilot Training and Testing Standards: Applicant’s Use of Checklists

Checklist Accomplishment Methods

The proper use of a checklist depends on the task being conducted. In some situations, using the checklist would be unsafe or impractical, especially in a single-pilot operation. In this case, reviewing the checklist after the elements have been accomplished would be appropriate.

Challenge-And-Response (Do-List): A typical checklist has two columns. The left column shows the switch or control that needs to be moved or verified (the challenge), and the right column shows the action that needs to be taken with the switch or control (the response). Each challenge is read and is followed by the necessary task or check being accomplished. A response is made only after verifying the proper configuration or condition exists.

Flow (Do-Verify): A mental “flow” check can be used in high workload situations. The flow is a systematic scan of the instrument panel. It shows the pilot what items to consider, not what to do. After completing the flow, the checklist is read to verify that all items have been completed.

General Procedures for Checklists

Beginning and Ending a Checklist: To complete a checklist, state the name of the checklist, do the checklist, and when finished, state the name of the checklist again along with the statement “checklist complete.”

Interrupted Checklists: If the checklist is only delayed for a brief period and the pilot is sure of where he or she was interrupted, the item may be completed, and the checklist may continue. Otherwise, restarting the checklist from the beginning is recommended.

Touch Verification: Pilots sometimes erroneously respond to a checklist item, believing it was accomplished when it was not. Looking at and then touching each gauge, switch, or control helps improve accuracy.

Single-Pilot Operations: During noncritical phases of flight, the pilot should use the challenge-and-response method. The flow (do-verify) method can be used when the workload is higher.

Two-Pilot Operations: The challenge-and-response method is best for a crew environment. The PF should initiate each checklist by calling for it by name. The PNF should perform the checklist while the PF continues to fly. Critical items, such as the flap position, should always be verbalized. The PNF should state when the checklist is complete.

Use of Commercially or Personally Developed Checklists

Note: Pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 121 or 135 are prohibited from using unapproved checklists.

Pilots may purchase or adapt checklists to streamline operations and incorporate personal preferences. Any changes must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure they align with the manufacturer’s recommendations and aircraft limitations.

Adapting emergency checklists is generally not recommended due to the critical nature of these procedures. If adaptations are necessary, the immediate action items should remain consistent with the manufacturer’s checklist.

Traffic Pattern Elements

References: AC 90-66, Pilot/Controller Glossary

Entry Leg: The preferred entry is on a 45° angle to the downwind at a point abeam the midpoint of the runway in use, unless otherwise directed by ATC. This leg should be of sufficient length to provide the pilot with a clear view of the traffic pattern and allow adequate time for planning. Descending entries should be avoided.

Downwind Leg: A flightpath parallel to the landing runway in the opposite direction of landing. This leg is flown approximately 1/2 to 1 mile out from the landing runway and at the specified traffic pattern altitude.

Base Leg: A flightpath at a right angle to the landing runway. It extends from the downwind leg to an intersection of the extended runway centerline. The turn to base begins at a point approximately 45° from the approach end of the runway to achieve a 1/2 to 3/4 mile final approach leg.

Final Approach Leg: A descending flightpath starting from the completion of the base-to-final turn and extending to the point of touchdown.

Departure Leg: A straight course aligned with, and leading from, the takeoff runway. The departure leg begins at the point the airplane leaves the ground and continues straight out, leaves on a 45° angle, or until a turn onto the crosswind leg is made.

Upwind Leg: A course flown parallel to the landing runway in the same direction as landing traffic. This leg is flown after go-arounds.

Crosswind Leg: A flightpath that is horizontally perpendicular to the extended centerline of the takeoff runway. It is opposite to the base leg. The turn to crosswind is made when the airplane is beyond 1/2 mile from the runway and within 300′ of traffic pattern altitude.

Traffic Pattern Operations

References: 14 CFR 91.113, 14 CFR 91.126, 14 CFR 91.127, 14 CFR 91.129, 14 CFR 91.130, 14 CFR 91.131, AC 90-66, AIM 4-3-3, AIM 4-3-5, Krug (2014) Legal Interpretation

Sources of Traffic Pattern Information

Traffic pattern information can be divided into two areas:

• General information that describes the standard rules and procedures for all traffic patterns.
• Local information that describes the specific procedures for each airport of intended use.

General traffic pattern information includes:

• 14 CFR 91.113: Right-of-way rules
• 14 CFR 91.126 and 91.127: Traffic flow rules at nontowered airports
• 14 CFR 91.129, 91.130, and 91.131: Operations at airports within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace
• AIM 4-3: Airport Operations
• AC 90-66: Non-Towered Airport Flight Operations

Local traffic pattern information includes:

• Chart Supplements: The direction of turns, the altitude to be flown, and procedures applicable to each airport
• NOTAMs: Pertinent information that may affect the use of runways and traffic patterns
• Traffic Pattern Indicators: Visual markings on the ground that indicate the direction of turns for each runway at an airport

Related: Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance: Right-of-Way Rules

Direction of Turns at Nontowered Airports

Approaching aircraft must make all turns to the left unless approved visual markings indicate that turns should be made to the right.

On Sectional and Terminal Area Charts, right traffic patterns are indicated by the abbreviation “RP” (right pattern), followed by the appropriate runway number(s).

Notes:

• When the “RP” abbreviation includes an asterisk (“*”), pilots should refer to the Chart Supplements. It does not indicate that all runways use right-hand turns.
• Helicopters and powered parachutes must avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft.

Straight-in-Approaches

The FAA does not regulate traffic pattern entry, only traffic pattern flow. However, the FAA discourages straight-in approaches to nontowered fields to ensure safe and predictable traffic pattern flows. Pilots who choose to do so should not disrupt the flow of arriving and departing traffic.

Direction of Turns at Towered Airports

When operating to or from the primary airport within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace, pilots must follow ATC instructions. When approaching to land in an airplane, the pilot must circle to the left, except when conducting a circling approach under standard instrument approach procedures or when ATC specifies otherwise.

Operations at Satellite Airports

Pilots must comply with FAA arrival and departure traffic patterns when operating to or from a satellite airport within a Class C or Class D airspace area.

Traffic Pattern Altitudes

Traffic pattern altitudes should be maintained unless otherwise required by the applicable distance from cloud criteria. Pilots of small airplanes should operate at the normal traffic pattern altitude of 1,000′ AGL unless specified otherwise in the Chart Supplements.

Large or Turbine-Powered Airplanes

At airports within Class D, Class, C, and Class C airports, large or turbine-powered airplanes are required by regulation to use at least 1,500′ AGL as the traffic pattern altitude. They must also climb to an altitude of 1,500′ above the surface as rapidly as practicable after takeoff.

Observation of Wind Indicators at Nontowered Airports

When checking the wind and landing direction indicator at an airport without a control tower, pilots should avoid flying through the traffic pattern. Instead, they should check the indicators while flying at an altitude above the traffic pattern.

Once the traffic pattern direction has been determined, pilots should proceed to a point well clear of the pattern before descending to the traffic pattern altitude.

Visual Approach Slope Indicators

Within Class D, Class C, and Class B airspace, all airplanes approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator must maintain an altitude at or above the glidepath until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.

Recommended Traffic Pattern Speeds

Note:

• Speeds published by the airplane manufacturer have priority.
• Pilots should adjust the airspeed, when necessary, to be compatible with other aircraft in the traffic pattern.

• Departure and Upwind Leg: V_X or V_Y as appropriate
• Crosswind Leg: 1.4 V_S1 after reaching the traffic pattern altitude
• Downwind Leg: 1.5 V_S1
• Base Leg: 1.4 V_SO
• Final Approach: 1.3 V_SO plus one-half of the wind gust factor
• Maneuvering: 1.4 V_S1 minimum while making turns in the clean configuration (e.g., pattern entry or 360° turn for spacing)

Related:

• Stall Awareness: Defined Minimum Maneuvering Speed
• Aircraft Performance: Approach Speed Calculations

The “REACT” Model for Nontowered Airports

The way to fly safely at nontowered airports is to use the “REACT” model:

• Radio: Listen to the automated weather observations, if available, and the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) for airport information and traffic advisories. Make position reports using standard phraseology.
• Eyes: Look for other traffic. Visual scanning is the top priority when operating in the vicinity of a nontowered airport.
• Approach: Turn the landing lights ON within 10 miles of the airport. Complete the descent checklist before entering the traffic pattern.
• Courtesy: A little courtesy smooths out most problems. The “me first” attitude can be dangerous.
• Traffic Pattern: Follow all recommended procedures. Research the departure and destination airports before flight.

Traffic Pattern Entries

Entry to the downwind leg should be at a 45° angle to the downwind at a point abeam the midpoint of the landing runway unless otherwise directed by ATC.

Arriving aircraft should be at traffic pattern altitude and allow for sufficient time to view the entire traffic pattern before entering. Entries into traffic patterns while descending create hazards and should be avoided.

Entry Methods when Crossing Midfield

As an alternative type of entry, pilots may choose to cross over midfield. The decision should be made carefully with considerations taken for known traffic and parachute operations.

270° Entry (Preferred)

One method of entry from the opposite side of the pattern is to cross over at least 500′ above the pattern altitude. When well clear of the pattern, approximately 2 miles out, descend to pattern altitude and enter at a 45° angle to the downwind leg.

Because large and turbine aircraft normally fly the traffic pattern at 1,500′ AGL, crossing 500′ above the pattern altitude might place the airplane in conflict with traffic. If large or turbine aircraft operate into the airport, 2,000′ AGL is a safer crossing altitude.

Midfield Entry (Alternative)

An alternate method is to enter on a midfield crosswind at pattern altitude, carefully scan for traffic, and then turn downwind. This entry should not be used when the pattern is congested and pilots should give way to aircraft on the preferred 45° entry and on downwind.

Traffic Pattern Departures

Methods for exiting the traffic pattern after takeoff:

• After reaching the pattern attitude, exit with a 45° turn in the direction of the traffic pattern.
• Climb straight out on the extended runway centerline. Wait until the airplane is at least 500′ above the traffic pattern altitude before making any turn.

Stall-Related Definitions

References: 14 CFR 23.2110, 14 CFR 23.2150, AC 61-67, AC 120-109

Stall: An aerodynamic condition that occurs when smooth airflow over the airplane’s wings is disrupted, resulting in a loss of lift and an increase in drag. The wing does not entirely stop producing lift, but it is not capable of sustaining level flight.

A stall occurs when the airplane is flown at an angle of attack (AOA) greater than the angle for maximum lift (the critical AOA). This can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting.

Some aircraft do not have a defined stall break. The stall is characterized as more of a “mush.” In such cases, a stall can be characterized by any of the following: (1) buffeting, (2) a lack of pitch authority, (3) a lack of roll control, or (4) an inability to arrest the descent rate (e.g., pitch control full aft).

Buffeting: The beginning of airflow separation over the wing creates a turbulent wake. If the horizontal stabilizer or stabilator is in the turbulent separation wake, vibrations in the flight controls (buffeting) can be felt.

First Indication of a Stall: The initial aural, tactile, or visual sign of an impending stall, such as buffeting or the activation of a stall warning device.

Critical Angle of Attack

The critical AOA is the AOA at which a wing stalls. This angle varies from 16°–20° depending on the airplane’s design. A further increase in AOA does not further increase the lift coefficient (C_L).

For any given airplane, the critical AOA remains constant regardless of weight, CG, bank angle, temperature, density altitude, and pitch attitude (relative to the horizon). These factors may affect the speed at which the stall occurs, but not the angle.

Stall Speed

The speed at which the critical angle of attack is exceeded is the stall speed. The term can be misleading because stall speeds listed in the AFM/POH are not constants.

Published stall speeds are valid only:

• In unaccelerated 1 G flight.
• In coordinated flight.
• At one power setting (typically idle).
• At one weight (typically maximum gross weight).
• At a particular CG (typically maximum forward location).

A stall is the result of excessive AOA, not insufficient airspeed.

Stall Prevention Training

Reference: AC 61-67

Stall prevention training consists of ground and flight instruction to avoid and recognize an impending stall.

Preflight Planning and Inspections

Preflight planning can prevent many of the precursors to stall/spin accidents, including:

• Fuel exhaustion/starvation.
• Inadequate climb performance due to overloading.
• Reduced stability due to an excessively aft CG.
• Inadvertent encounters with instrument weather conditions.

A careful preflight inspection should be conducted to ensure:

• The fuel is not contaminated by water (to prevent an engine failure on takeoff).
• The dynamic and static pressure ports are clear to prevent erroneous airspeed indications.
• The aircraft is free of ice, snow, and frost.

Contributing to the accident was the pilot’s inadequate preflight weight and balance calculations, which resulted in the center of gravity being aft of the limit.

NTSB Stall/Spin Accident Report (WPR16LA150)

Defined Minimum Maneuvering Speed

Pilots of transport category airplanes are familiar with the term minimum maneuvering speed, which is the slowest allowable speed to make turns in a specific aircraft configuration or at a certain weight. But manufacturers of small, general aviation airplanes do not publish minimum maneuvering speeds.

For an aircraft without a published minimum maneuvering speed, is it up to the pilot to decide what margin above stall speed to use during turning flight. By designating and adhering to a defined minimum maneuvering speed (DMMS), general aviation pilots can hold themselves to a higher level of safety by reducing the risk of loss of control-inflight (LOC-I) accidents.

The following formula defines a minimum maneuvering speed.

DMMS = Clean Stall Speed (VS1) × 1.4

The DMMS is essentially a 30% buffer above the clean stall speed (V_S1) in a 30° bank. Stall speed increases by approximately 7% to 8% in 30° bank (1.3 V_S1 + 8% = roughly 1.4).

Times when it is acceptable to go slower than the DMMS:

• During takeoff and climbout.
• On a base leg and configuring for landing (partial flaps and 1.4 V_S0 is recommended).
• On final approach (the published speed or 1.3 V_S0 is recommended).
• During intentional slow flight at a safe altitude.

Related: Conduct of Upset Prevention and Recovery Training: Loss of Control Accidents

Best Practices for Using a Minimum Maneuvering Speed

• If the aircraft has a traditional airspeed indicator (“steam gauges”), mark the DMMS with a piece of removable tape.
• When flying with passengers, inform them of the DMMS and encourage them to speak up if it is violated.
• Do not confuse the DMMS with the design maneuvering speed (V_A). DMMS is a minimum. V_A is a maximum.
• Know how the DMMS relates to the airplane’s best glide speed (V_G). Understand the importance of each.
• For a multi-engine airplane, consider how the DMMS relates to the minimum control speed (V_MC).

Stall Recovery Training

References: AC 61-67, AC 120-109, SAFO 17009

Note: The following procedures are generalized. Procedures, including immediate-action items, must be accomplished as detailed in the AFM/POH and the appropriate checklist.

Stall recovery training consists of instructor-guided, hands-on experience of applying the stall recovery procedure for impending and full stalls.

Stall recovery training should include:

• Maneuver-based training that develops the motor skills necessary to accomplish stall recoveries. Limited emphasis is placed on decision-making skills.
• Scenario-based training (SBT) that develops the decision-making skills relating to stall recognition and recovery. SBT is normally introduced after maneuver-based training.

Related:

• Multi-Engine Airplanes: Conduct of Stall Training in Multi-Engine Airplanes
• Conduct of Scenario-Based Training

Generic Stall Recovery Template

1. Disconnect the autopilot (if equipped). Manual control is essential to recovery in all situations.
2. Pitch nose-down until impending stall indications are eliminated. If the elevator does not provide the needed response, pitch trim may be necessary.
3. Roll wings level. This orients the lift vector properly for an effective recovery. Do not use the ailerons before reducing the AOA. Cancel yaw with the rudder to prevent a stall from progressing into a spin.
4. Add thrust/power. Power should be added promptly, but smoothly as needed, as stalls can occur at high power or low power settings, or at high airspeeds or low airspeeds.
5. Retract speedbrakes/spoilers (if equipped).
6. Return to the desired flightpath. Be careful to avoid a secondary stall.

Special Emphasis Items

• If a wing drops during a stall, the rudder should be used to prevent a spin entry.
• The airspeed indicator sometimes warns of an impending stall. The indicated stall speed depends on acceleration forces and many other factors.
• Stall warning devices may not activate during uncoordinated flight due to increased wing loading.
• Turns, either vertical (pull-ups) or horizontal, load the wings and increase the stall speed dramatically.
• Stall characteristics are usually worse at aft CG due to reduced stability.
• Smooth, deliberate, and positive control inputs are necessary to avoid excessive load factors and secondary stalls.
• The stall recovery procedures for each airplane may differ. For example, some airplanes don’t have a definite stall break but will sink rapidly beyond the critical AOA.

Angle of Attack Reduction

• Reducing the AOA is the most important pilot action in recovering from an impending or full stall.
• A proper stall recovery procedure is one that regains positive aircraft control quickly and minimizes the loss of altitude.
• The AOA should be reduced until the impending stall indications are eliminated. Generally, this will require lowering the nose to the level flight position, or slightly below it.

Hazards of the Autopilot

• The autopilot may mask the detection of the tactile cues used by pilots to detect an impending stall.
• The autopilot may make adjustments to the flight controls or trim that may not be easily recognized, especially during high workload situations.
• If the autopilot self-disconnects in response to a stall warning, the airplane may abruptly pitch up due to trim application.

Scenario-Based Stall Training

Scenario-based training prepares pilots for real-world stall events that happen unexpectedly. When possible, scenarios should include accident or incident data to provide a realistic learning experience.

The following scenarios can be recreated at a safe altitude for training purposes. Emphasis should be placed on stall avoidance and recognition.

“Moose” Stall

Sometimes accidents occur when there is a distraction by something on the ground. More than a few Alaskan aviators have lost control while maneuvering for a better view of a moose. Low-altitude maneuvering for aerial photography is another activity that creates an outside distraction.

To simulate this scenario:

1. Establish level flight near the minimum controllable airspeed.
2. Enter a turn using 30°–40° bank angle while looking outside.
3. Maintain altitude while turning. Increase back pressure, if necessary, to induce a stall.
4. Recover at the first indication of a stall by reducing the AOA.
5. Roll the wings level and apply additional power as needed.

Engine-Out Stall: “Stretch” the Glide

This scenario simulates what a pilot might attempt on an approach without engine power. If the pilot gets too low, the normal reaction is to increase back pressure on the pitch control. The glide range is reduced as the airplane slows below the best glide speed. The pilot reacts by adding more back pressure until a stall occurs.

To simulate this scenario:

1. Close the throttle to simulate an engine failure.
2. Establish a descent at the best glide speed and configure the airplane for a landing.
3. To simulate correcting for a low approach, prevent the airplane from losing more than 100′ of altitude in 20 seconds.
4. Recover at the first indication of a stall by reducing the AOA (throttle would not be available).

Engine Failure After Takeoff

In the event of an engine failure on initial climb-out, the airplane is at or near a stalling AOA. At the same time, the pilot may still be holding right rudder. The pilot must immediately lower the nose (get “light in the seat”) to prevent a stall while moving the rudder to ensure coordinated flight.

This scenario demonstrates how quickly a stall can occur in a climb attitude following an engine failure. If the pilot is not mentally prepared for such an event, the startle factor may prevent any action from being taken in the first 3–4 seconds. In that amount of time, the airplane could stall.

To simulate this scenario:

1. Establish an obstacle clearance configuration at the best angle of climb (V_X).
2. Close the throttle to simulate an engine failure.
3. Maintain back-pressure on the pitch control to hold the pitch attitude.
4. Take no action for four seconds to simulate the startle factor. Note the amount of airspeed lost.
5. Recover at the first indication of a stall by reducing the AOA (throttle would not be available).

“Impossible Turn” Stall

Attempting to return to the airport after an engine failure during climbout often results in an uncoordinated, accelerated stall. The tendency is for the pilot to use inside rudder pressure to increase the turn rate without increasing the bank angle. The result is often a cross-controlled stall and spin ending in fatalities, which is the reason why critics call it the “impossible” turn.

To simulate this scenario:

1. Establish a normal climb configuration at the best rate of climb (V_Y).
2. Close the throttle to simulate an engine failure.
3. Pitch down to establish the best glide speed.
4. Make a 180° turn using a bank angle of approximately 40°.
5. Optionally, apply inside rudder pressure and opposite aileron to simulate a cross-controlled condition.
6. To clear a simulated obstacle, attempt to maintain altitude for five seconds while turning.
7. Recover at the first indication of a stall by reducing the AOA (throttle would not be available). Then roll the wings level.

How to Recover from a Spin

Reference: AC 61-67

There is no universal spin-recovery technique that works for all aircraft. The aircraft’s particular spin characteristics are listed in the AFM/POH. In the absence of the manufacturer’s recommended spin recovery procedures and techniques, the “PARE” recovery procedure is recommended.

What is an Upset?

References: AC 120-111, SAFO 17009

An upset occurs when an airplane in flight unintentionally exceeds the parameters normally experienced in flight or training.

Parameters that define an upset:

• Pitch: Greater than 25° nose up or 10° nose down.
• Bank Angle: Greater than 45° in either direction.
• Airspeed: Inappropriate for the conditions.

Note: The reference to inappropriate airspeeds describes a number of undesired aircraft states, including stalls. However, stalls are directly related to the angle of attack (AOA), not airspeed.

Loss of Control Accidents

References: AC 61-98, AC 120-111, FAA Safety Briefing Jul/Aug 2018

An upset often leads to a loss of control (LOC) accident. Accidents in the LOC category result from situations in which a pilot should have maintained or regained aircraft control but did not.

LOC is divided into two categories:

• Loss of Control-Inflight (LOC-I): A significant deviation of an aircraft from the intended flightpath (e.g., base-to-final stall).
• Loss of Control-Ground (LOC-G): Loss of aircraft control while the aircraft is on the ground (e.g., runway excursion).

Why Loss of Control Accidents Occur

Loss of control of an aircraft is always preceded by a loss of command of the aircraft.

Cirrus Owners and Pilots Association

There are five main reasons why LOC accidents occur in GA airplanes:

• Continuing VFR flight into IMC.
• A distraction caused by something outside or inside the airplane.
• An inappropriate response to an emergency event (startle response).
• Inadequate aircraft handling skills, particularly in crosswind operations.
• Inadequate risk management.

Best Practices to Prevent LOC Accidents

• Review and rehearse emergency procedures often.
• Participate in the FAA WINGS–Pilot Proficiency Program and other safety programs.
• Complete a spin, emergency maneuver, or upset prevention and recovery training course.
• Recognize and maintain a heightened awareness of situations that increase the risk of a LOC.
• Treat recurrent training, such as a flight review, not as a chore, but as a great opportunity to learn something new.
• Review the aircraft’s limitations, abnormal and emergency procedures, and performance numbers before they are needed.

Causal and Contributing Factors to LOC-I Accidents

The top causal and contributing factors that have led to an upset and resulted in a loss of control-inflight (LOC-I) accident are:

• Environmental factors
• Mechanical factors
• Human factors
• Stall-related factors

Environmental Factors

Environmental factors that can cause upset and LOC-I include:

• Turbulence, such as clear air turbulence, mountain waves, wind shear, microbursts, and wake turbulence.
• Structural icing, which can significantly degrade airplane performance, resulting in a stall if not handled correctly.

Environmental-related upsets can be prevented by:

• Making thorough preflight weather assessments.
• Using wake turbulence avoidance procedures.

Related:

• Principles of Flight: Wake Turbulence and Wingtip Vortices
• Aviation Weather: Turbulence
• Aviation Weather: Structural Icing
• Aviation Weather: Wind Shear
• Aviation Weather: Microbursts

Mechanical Factors

Mechanical factors that can cause upset and LOC-I include:

• Malfunction of the autopilot.
• Jammed flight controls.
• Asymmetrical flaps.
• Runaway trim.

Mechanical-related upsets can be prevented by:

• Following proper maintenance and inspection procedures.
• Performing advanced preflight checks (going above and beyond the normal preflight checklist).

Related:

• Flight Deck Management: Automation Management
• Systems and Equipment Malfunctions: Jammed Flight Control
• Systems and Equipment Malfunctions: Flap Malfunction
• Systems and Equipment Malfunctions: Inoperative or Runaway Trim

Human Factors

Human factors that can cause upset and LOC-I include:

• Continued VFR flight into IMC.
• Diverting attention away from basic airplane control responsibilities.
• Spatial disorientation or sensory illusions.
• Psychological or physiological reactions to an actual upset (e.g., startle and surprise response)

Human-factor-related upsets can be prevented by:

• Instrument proficiency training.
• Risk management training (“breaking” the error chain through sound judgment).
• Maintaining a heightened awareness of situations that increase the risk of LOC.
• Conducting scenario-based training using realistic distractions to evoke a startle and surprise response.

Related:

• The Teaching Process: Scenario-Based Training Method
• Aeromedical Factors: Spatial Disorientation
• Flight Deck Management: Errors in Task Management
• Inflight Emergencies: Human Factors During Emergencies
• Basic Instrument Maneuvers: Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC

Stall-Related Factors

A recurring causal factor in LOC-I accidents is the pilot’s inappropriate reaction to impending stalls and full stalls.

Stall-related upsets can be prevented by:

• Understanding how the airplane performs in the slow flight regime.
• Learning to recognize an impending stall by sight, sound, and feel.
• Conducting stall awareness and scenario-based stall training.

Related: Stall Awareness: Stall Prevention Training

Managing Priorities During Emergencies

“Aviate, navigate, communicate” is a phrase used by pilots to remember the priorities of tasks during emergencies.

The priorities are:

1. Aviate: Maintaining positive aircraft control has priority over all other considerations, including airplane configuration and checklists.
2. Navigate: Know where you are and where you intend to go.
3. Communicate: Let someone know your position and intentions on the emergency radio frequency (121.5 MHz) or by contacting a nearby ATC facility. If already in radio contact with a facility, do not change frequencies unless instructed to change.

Checklist Usage During Emergencies

Aircraft checklists are typically divided into normal and emergency procedures. Manufacturers may publish emergency checklists in an abbreviated form, followed by amplified (expanded) checklists that provide additional information.

Immediate Action Items

Certain emergencies require immediate action on the pilot’s part. Airplane manufacturers typically denote immediate action items in a checklist with a bold font and place them before the less critical items.

During an emergency, pilots should perform the immediate action items from memory and then refer to the written checklist.

Benefits of a Well-Rehearsed Checklist

Unexpected events, such as an engine failure after takeoff, create chaos. Checklists provide a routine (ritual) for pilots to fall back on during this time of confusion, helping them to maintain control of the situation.

Ritual makes sense out of chaos.

Declaring an Emergency

References: AIM 6-3-1, AIM 6-3-2, Pilot/Controller Glossary, FAA Order JO 7110.65

Emergency: A distress or urgent situation that requires special handling of an aircraft by ATC. By declaring an emergency with ATC, the aircraft becomes a priority.

Not all malfunctions rise to the level of an actual emergency. Pilots should act in the best interest of safety by exercising PIC authority and declaring an emergency with ATC when the situation calls for it.

Types of emergencies:

• Distress: A condition of being threatened by serious or imminent danger requiring immediate assistance.
• Urgency: A condition of being concerned about safety and requiring timely but not immediate assistance.

Pilots in distress should declare an emergency by beginning the initial communication with “Mayday,” preferably repeated three times. “Pan-Pan” should be used for an urgent condition.

ATC requires the following information for inflight emergencies:

• Aircraft identification and type
• Nature of the emergency
• The pilot’s intentions

If able, pilots should include the following information:

• Present position and heading (the last known position if lost)
• Altitude or flight level
• Fuel remaining in minutes
• Number of people on board
• Any other useful information

Declaring a Minimum Fuel Advisory

Reference: AIM 5-5-15

Pilots should notify ATC of a minimum fuel status by using the term “minimum fuel” when the fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the destination, the aircraft cannot accept any undue delay. This is not an emergency but an advisory that indicates an emergency is possible should any undue delay occur.

A minimum fuel status does not imply a need for traffic priority. Pilots should declare an emergency when traffic priority is required due to low fuel.

Emergency Transponder Codes and ADS-B Status

References: AIM 4-5-7, AIM 6-2-2, AIM 6-3-4, AIM 6-4-2

Transponder Codes

• 7500: Hijacking
• 7600: Communications failure
• 7700: General emergency

Pilots should avoid inadvertently selecting these codes when making routine code changes to prevent false alarms.

ADS-B Status

ADS-B systems integrated with the transponder will automatically set the appropriate emergency status when an emergency code is entered into the transponder. Otherwise, the status is entered through a pilot interface.

Emergency Deviation from FAA Regulations

References: 14 CFR 91.3, AIM 6-1-1

In an emergency requiring immediate action, pilots may deviate from a regulation to the extent necessary to meet that emergency. Upon request, the PIC must send a written report of the deviation to the FAA.

Emergency Deviation from ATC Clearances and Instructions

References: 14 CFR 91.123, AIM 6-1-1

Pilots may deviate from an ATC clearance or instruction during an emergency. ATC must be notified as soon as possible.

If requested by ATC, the PIC must submit a written report of the emergency to the manager of the ATC facility within 48 hours.

Pre-Review Considerations

Agreement on the Conduct of the Flight Review

Ground Review (One Hour Minimum)

* Required by 14 CFR 61.56

Flight Maneuvers and Procedures (One Hour Minimum)

Post-Review Considerations

Completion of the Flight Review

A flight review, which consisted of a knowledge review and skill demonstration of the items noted above, has been satisfactorily completed.

Pilot

Experience:

• Flight Review (Ref: 14 CFR 61.56)
• Recent Flight Experience (Ref: 14 CFR 61.57)

Certificates and Documents:

• Required Personal Documents (Ref: 14 CFR 61.3)
• Duration of Pilot and Instructor Certificates and Privileges (Ref: 14 CFR 61.19)
• Medical Certificates: Requirement and Duration (Ref: 14 CFR 61.23)
• Medical Certificates: Replacement (Ref: 14 CFR 61.29)
• Prohibition on Operations During Medical Deficiency (Ref: 14 CFR 61.53)
• Pilot Logbooks (Ref: 14 CFR 61.51)

Responsibility:

• Responsibility and Authority of the PIC (Ref: 14 CFR 91.3)
• Preflight Action (Ref: 14 CFR 91.103)
• Use of Safety Belts and Passenger Briefings (Ref: 14 CFR 91.105, 14 CFR 91.107)
• Compliance with ATC Clearances and Instructions (Ref: 14 CFR 91.123)

Cautions:

• Careless or Reckless Operation (Ref: 14 CFR 91.13)
• Dropping Objects (Ref: 14 CFR 91.15)
• Alcohol or Drugs (Ref: 14 CFR 91.17)
• Supplemental Oxygen (Ref: 14 CFR 91.211)
• Fitness for Flight (Ref: AIM 8-1)

Aircraft

Airworthiness:

• Civil Aircraft Airworthiness (Ref: 14 CFR 91.7)
• Aircraft Flight Manual, Markings, and Placards (Ref: 14 CFR 91.9)
• Fuel Requirements for Flight in VFR Conditions (Ref: 14 CFR 91.151)
• Fuel Requirements for Flight in IFR Conditions (Ref: 14 CFR 91.167)
• Required Aircraft Documents (Ref: 14 CFR 91.203)
• Instrument and Equipment Requirements (Ref: 14 CFR 91.205)
• Emergency Locator Transmitter Requirements (Ref: 14 CFR 91.207)
• Aircraft Lights (Ref: 14 CFR 91.209)
• Inoperative Instruments and Equipment (Ref: 14 CFR 91.213, AC 91-67)
• ATC Transponder and Altitude Reporting Equipment and Use (Ref: 14 CFR 91.215)
• ADS-B Out (Ref: 14 CFR 91.225, AC 90-114)

Maintenance:

• Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities (Ref: 14 CFR 91.403, 14 CFR 91.405)
• Operation After Maintenance (Ref: 14 CFR 91.407)
• Maintenance Records (Ref: 14 CFR 91.417, AC 43-9)
• Preventive Maintenance (Ref: 14 CFR Part 43 Appendix A, AC 43-12)

Inspections:

• Annual and 100-Hour (Ref: 14 CFR 91.409)
• Altimeter and Pitot-Static System (Ref: 14 CFR 91.411)
• ATC Transponder Inspections (Ref: 14 CFR 91.413)
• ELT Batteries and Inspections (Ref: 14 CFR 91.207)
• IFR Operations: VOR Equipment Check (Ref: 14 CFR 91.171)

Environment

Aircraft:

• Operating Near Other Aircraft (Ref: 14 CFR 91.111)
• “See and Avoid” Concept (Ref: 14 CFR 91.113, AIM 5-5-8, AC 90-48)
• Right-of-Way Rules (Ref: 14 CFR 91.113)
• Aircraft Wake Turbulence (Ref: AC 90-23)

Airports:

• Airport Marking Aids and Signs (Ref: AIM 2-3)
• Airport Operations (Ref: AIM 4-3)
• ATC Light Signals (Ref: 14 CFR 91.125)
• Traffic Patterns (Ref: 14 CFR 91.126, AC 90-66)
• Nontowered Airports (Ref: 14 CFR 91.126, 14 CFR 91.127, AC 90-66)
• Airports in Class D Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.129)
• Airports in Class C Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.130)
• Airports in Class B Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.131)

Airspace and Navigation:

• Navigation Aids (Ref: AIM 1-1)
• Types of Airspace (Ref: AIM 3-1)
• Controlled Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.127, 14 CFR 91.129, 14 CFR 91.131, AIM 3-2)
• Class G Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.126, AIM 3-3)
• Special Use Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.133, AIM 3-4)
• Other Airspace Areas (Ref: AIM 3-5)
• Maximum Authorized Speeds (Ref: 14 CFR 91.117, 14 CFR 91.817)
• Minimum Safe Altitudes (Ref: 14 CFR 91.119)
• Flight Restrictions (Ref: 14 CFR 91.137, 14 CFR 91.141, 14 CFR 91.143, 14 CFR 91.145, AC 91-63)
• Emergency Air Traffic Rules (Ref: 14 CFR 91.139, AIM 5-6, AC 91-63)
• Air Defense Identification Zones (Ref: 14 CFR Part 99, AIM 5-6-4, AIM 5-6-16)
• Altimeter Settings (Ref: 14 CFR 91.121, AIM 7-2, AIM 7-3)
• VFR and SVFR Weather Minimums (Ref: 14 CFR 91.155, 14 CFR 91.157)
• VFR Cruising Altitude (Ref: 14 CFR 91.159, AIM 3-1-5)
• IFR Clearance and Flight Plan Required (Ref: 14 CFR 91.173)
• IFR Minimum Altitudes (Ref: 14 CFR 91.177)
• IFR Cruising Altitude (Ref: 14 CFR 91.179)

ATC Services and Procedures:

• Services Available to Pilots (Ref: AIM 4-1)
• Radio Communications (Ref: AIM 4-2, Pilot/Controller Glossary)
• ATC Light Gun Signals (Ref: AIM 4-3-13)
• Preflight Preparation (Ref: AIM 5-1)
• IFR Operations: Takeoffs and Landings (Ref: 14 CFR 91.175)
• IFR Operations: Course to be Flown (Ref: 14 CFR 91.181)
• IFR Operations: Communications (Ref: 14 CFR 91.183, Pilot/Controller Glossary)
• IFR Operations: Two-Way Radio Communications Failure (Ref: 14 CFR 91.185)
• IFR Operations: Malfunction Reports (Ref: 14 CFR 91.187)
• IFR Operations: ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation (Ref: AIM 4-4)
• IFR Operations: Departure Procedures (Ref: AIM 5-2)
• IFR Operations: En Route Procedures (Ref: AIM 5-3)
• IFR Operations: Arrival Procedures (Ref: AIM 5-4)
• Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities (Ref: AIM 5-5)
• National Security and Interception Procedures (Ref: AIM 5-6)

External Pressures

• Risk Management (The PAVE Checklist and The 3P Model)
• Operational Pitfalls (Ref: AC 60-22)
• Hazardous Attitudes (Ref: AC 60-22)

Gather Resources and Develop the “Big Picture”

1. Obtain aeronautical charts that cover the area of flight and check their currency.

2. Locate the departure and destination airports. Determine the best route with consideration for airspace and obstructions.

3. Consult the Chart Supplements for communication frequencies, runway information, pattern altitudes, and field elevation.

4. Obtain a standard weather briefing. Identify PIREPs, NOTAMs, and TFRs affecting the flight.

Complete a Navigation Log

5. When using paper charts, draw a true course (TC) line to connect the departure airport and destination airport. Trace over the course highlighter to help identify it more easily while en route.

6. Select prominent en route checkpoints and measure the distance between each to ensure adequate spacing.

7. Determine the TC between each checkpoint on the Sectional Chart.

8. Identify the magnetic variation at each point by referring to the isogonic lines.

9. Determine the magnetic course (MC) by adding or subtracting (-E, +W) the magnetic variation to or from the TC.

10. Determine winds and temperatures aloft by interpolating between reported altitudes. To determine the outside air temperature (OAT) at altitudes without a reported temperature, use the standard temperature lapse rate of -2°C (-3.5°F) per thousand feet.

11. Determine the optimal cruising altitude based on the winds aloft, minimum safe altitudes, and the direction of flight:

• From MC 0° through 179° (inclusive): Use odd thousands plus 500′; and
• From MC 180° through 359° (inclusive): Use even thousands plus 500′.

12. Determine the wind correction angles (WCA) for the route segments. Winds aloft are reported in true headings.

13. Compute the magnetic heading (MH) and compass heading (CH).

14. Compute the estimated ground speed and ETE.

15. Determine the fuel required for all route segments plus the reserve requirement. Confirm that there is sufficient fuel on board to complete the flight. If not, plan a fuel stop.

Make Sure the Plan Works

16. Determine the aircraft’s weight and CG.

17. Compute takeoff and landing distances and ensure adequate runway length is available.

Finishing Touches

18. Draw a diagram of the runway layout to help identify the airport during flight. Mark on the diagram the direction of the traffic pattern, the traffic pattern altitude, and the expected entry direction.

19. From the Chart Supplements, identify en route weather reporting stations and note the FSS frequencies.

20. Identify potential risks using the PAVE checklist (Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures). Determine a mitigation strategy for each.

21. Ensure that there are no incomplete items on the flight planning log.

Go or No Go?

22. Make a final go/no-go decision.

23. File a flight plan.

Footnotes:

1. Student pilot operations at some Class B airports are prohibited (Ref: 14 CFR Part 91 Appendix D)
2. Required above 10,000′ MSL, excluding the airspace at and below 2,500′ AGL (Ref: 14 CFR 91.215)
3. Required in Class E airspace at and above 3,000′ MSL over the Gulf of Mexico from the coastline to 12 NM (Ref: 14 CFR 91.225)
4. When flying in Class G airspace at 1,200′ AGL or below:
   • Day: 1 SM visibility, clear of clouds (Ref: 14 CFR 91.155)
   • Night: 3 SM visibility, 500′ below, 1,000′ above, 2,000′ horizontal (Ref: 14 CFR 91.155)

Exceptions:

• 14 CFR 91.155(b) states that in class G airspace below 1,200′ AGL during night hours, when the visibility is not less than 1 SM, an airplane may be operated clear of clouds if operated in an airport traffic pattern within 1/2 mile of the runway.
• 14 CFR 91.155(c) prohibits pilots from operating beneath the ceiling under VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less than 1,000′. This includes Class E surface areas.

Stabilized Approach Concept

A stabilized approach is characterized by a constant-angle, constant-rate of descent approach profile ending near the touchdown point, where the landing maneuver begins. Slight and infrequent adjustments are all that are needed to maintain a stabilized approach.

Stabilized Approach Criteria

C-FLAPS

• Checklists and briefings: Complete
• Flightpath: Established (±1 dot of deflection horizontally and vertically)
• Landing Configuration: Set
• Airspeed: Established (+10/-5 knots)
• Power: Set for the airplane configuration
• Sink Rate: No greater than 1,000 FPM

Notes:

• These parameters should be adjusted for the aircraft type and include all manufacturer guidance.
• Any approach that requires deviations from the parameters should be addressed in a special briefing.

Minimum Stabilization Heights

The recommended minimum stabilization heights are:

• 300′ above the airport elevation in VMC for a small airplane in the traffic pattern.
• 500′ above the airport elevation in VMC.
• 1,000′ above the airfield elevation in IMC.
• For a circling approach, MDA or 500′ above the airport elevation, whichever is lower.

Go-Around for Safety

The objective is to stabilize the aircraft before reaching the predetermined minimum stabilization height. If the aircraft is not stabilized at the minimum stabilization height or becomes unstabilized below it, a go-around should be initiated.

Reference: AC 61-98

5. Stick to the Plan

Do not lower personal minimums for a specific flight. The time to consider adjustments is when you are not under any pressure to fly.

This worksheet will help you develop a plan for maintaining and improving aeronautical skills. Use it to establish a proficiency program that exceeds the regulatory currency requirements.