What is Human Behavior?

Human behavior can be defined as the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs.

Human Needs and Motivation

Motivation is the force that causes a person to move toward a goal. It is the greatest influence on learning.

Motivations may be:

• Positive or negative
• Tangible or intangible
• Obvious or subtle and difficult to identify

Human needs are the things that humans require for normal growth and development.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological (Biological)
2. Safety and Security
3. Love/Belonging (Social)
4. Self-Esteem (Egoistic)
5. Self-Actualization (Self-Fulfillment)

Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are subconscious defenses against the realities of unpleasant situations.

Common Defense Mechanisms

“Dr, Dr, CPR Fast“

• Denial: Refusing to admit a truth (a form of repression).
• Repression: Placing uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the mind.
• Displacement: Taking anger out on someone else.
• Rationalization: Justifying unacceptable actions.
• Compensation: Hiding weaknesses by emphasizing strengths in other areas.
• Projection: Blaming others.
• Reaction Formation: Faking a belief opposite to the actual belief.
• Fantasy: Daydreaming.

Emotional Reactions: Obstacles to Learning

• Anxiety
• Feelings of unfair treatment
• Impatience
• Worry or lack of interest
• Apathy due to inadequate instruction
• Physical discomfort, illness, fatigue, and dehydration

Emotional Reactions: Stress and Anxiety

Stress is a term to describe the body’s response to demands placed on it.

Normal individuals react to stress by:

• Becoming extremely sensitive to their surroundings.
• Responding rapidly, often automatically, within their experience and training.

Abnormal responses to stress include:

• Severe anger at the instructor or others.
• Inappropriate laughter or singing.
• Marked changes in mood on different lessons.
• Actions that are random or illogical.

Anxiety is a reaction to stress that produces a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease.

Adverse responses to anxiety include:

• A hesitancy or inability to act.
• An impulse to do something quickly.

Adverse responses to anxiety can be countered by:

• Reinforcing the learner’s enjoyment of flying.
• Treating fears as a normal reaction rather than ignoring them.
• Introducing new maneuvers with care.

Emotional Reactions: Serious Abnormalities

An instructor who believes a learner may have a disqualifying psychological defect should get a second opinion from another instructor. If both instructors agree, endorsements and recommendations should be withheld.

Hazardous behaviors that affect airmen certification should be reported to the local FSDO.

What is Learning Theory?

Learning theory is a body of principles that explain how people acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

Learning Theory: Behaviorism

Behaviorism suggests that learning occurs by having behaviors reinforced or controlled (stimulus and response).

Learning Models in Behaviorism

Classical conditioning is learning that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired (e.g., Pavlov’s dog).

Operant conditioning modifies behaviors through reward or punishment (reinforcement).

Learning Theory: Cognitivism

Cognitivism focuses on what is going on inside the mind (e.g., problem-solving and decision-making).

Learning Models in Cognitivism

Information processing theory compares the brain to a computer as a model for learning. Both process incoming information, store it, and retrieve it.

Constructivism states that learners must actively build or construct knowledge and skills based on past experiences.

Learning Theory: Social Learning

Social learning occurs by observing, imitating, and modeling the actions of others.

Four stages of social learning:

1. Attention: Observing others.
2. Retention: Remembering an observed behavior.
3. Reproduction: Producing an observed behavior.
4. Motivation: Deciding to reproduce an observed behavior.

Perceptions and Insight

Perceptions occur when a person gives meaning to the information received from one or more of the five bodily senses.

Insight is the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. It occurs when something is understood.

Factors that Affect Perception

G-STEP

• Goals and Values: Beliefs shape learning experiences.
• Self-Concept: A favorable self-image makes one more receptive to new experiences.
• Time and Opportunity: Learning takes time.
• Element of Threat: Fear limits perceptiveness.
• Physical Organism: The body affects one’s ability to detect and interpret information.

Phases of Knowledge Acquisition

MUA

1. Memorization: Memorizing facts.
2. Understanding: Facts are organized. Similarities and associations can be made.
3. Application: Using the knowledge to solve problems and make decisions.

The Laws of Learning

REEPIR

• Readiness: People learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready.
• Effect: Learning is strengthened when associated with pleasant experiences.
• Exercise: Things repeated (practiced) are best remembered.
• Primacy: Things learned first often create strong and unshakable impressions. What is taught must be taught right the first time.
• Intensity: Exciting learning experiences teach more than routine or dull experiences.
• Recency: Things most recently learned are best remembered.

Learning Styles

• Right Brain/Left Brain (Analytical/Creative)
• Holistic/Serialistic (Top-Down/Bottom-Up)
• Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic/Tactile (VAKT)
• Index of Learning Styles:
  • Active/Reflective
  • Sensing/Intuitive
  • Visual/Verbal
  • Sequential/Global

Domains of Learning

Cognitive (Thinking) – (RUAC)

1. Rote (Defining)
2. Understanding (Explaining)
3. Application (Solving)
4. Correlation (Comparing)

Affective (Feeling)

1. Receiving (Awareness)
2. Responding (Reacting)
3. Valuing (Accepting)
4. Organization (Rearranging)
5. Characterization (Integrating)

Psychomotor (Doing)

1. Observation (Watching)
2. Imitation (Copying)
3. Practice (Gaining Proficiency)
4. Habit (Automation)

Characteristics of Learning

RAMP

• Result of Experience: Learning is an individual process; the instructor cannot do it for the learner.
• Active Process: Knowledge is retained better when combined with hands-on activities.
• Multifaceted: The learning process may involve verbal, conceptual, perceptual, and elements of problem-solving, all taking place at once.
• Purposeful: Everyone has specific intentions and goals.

Phases of Skill Development

CAAR

1. Cognitive: Memorizing the required steps.
2. Associative: Muscles are coordinated with visual and tactile senses through practice.
3. Automatic Response: It is possible to do things simultaneously. Performance is rapid and smooth.

Learning Plateaus

Learning is rapid early in training but tends to slow down. This is called a learning plateau.

Types of Practice

Deliberate: Practicing specific areas for improvement with brief instructor feedback.

Blocked: Practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic. It results in good short-term performance but poorer long-term learning.

Random: Mixing up practice skills in random order. This helps to recognize similarities and differences.

Scenario-Based Training (SBT)

SBT is a type of problem-based learning (PBL). It uses “real-world” scenarios to meet training objectives. The instructor serves as a mentor and coach to foster the development of aeronautical decision-making (ADM) skills.

Types of Errors

• Slips (errors of action)
• Mistakes (errors of thought)

Methods for Reducing Errors

• Learning and Practicing
• Taking Time
• Checking for Errors (e.g., “check your work”)
• Using Reminders (e.g., checklists)
• Developing Routines (e.g., standardized operating procedures)
• Raising Awareness (e.g., when rushed or fatigued)

Types of Memory

Sensory: Receives information from the environment and processes it. Extraneous information is discarded.

Short-Term: Where information is stored for roughly 30 seconds. It is also called working or “scratch-pad” memory because information is put to use.

Long-Term: The relatively permanent storage of unlimited information.

Principles of Retention

Praise Stimulates Remembering: Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated.

Association Promotes Recall: Each bit of information or action, which is associated with something to be learned, tends to facilitate its recall.

Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention: Without motivation, there is little chance for recall.

Learning with All Senses is Most Effective: A better understanding and chance of recall are achieved when several senses work together.

Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall: Repetitions allow the learner to gain a more accurate perception of the subject. 3 or 4 repetitions provide the maximum effect.

Why People Forget

Retrieval Failure: The inability to retrieve information (“tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon).

Fading: If a person forgets information that is not used for an extended period, it fades away.

Interference: People forget something because a particular experience overshadowed it or the learning of similar things has intervened.

Repression or Suppression: A bad memory is pushed out of reach. Repression is unconscious, suppression is conscious.

Transfer of Learning

• Positive: When learning one skill aids in learning another skill.
• Negative: When a previously learned skill interferes with learning a new skill.

What is Communication?

Communication is the continuous, two-way exchange of information for conveying ideas or feelings.

Effective communication takes place when the receivers react with understanding and change their behavior accordingly.

Basic Elements of Communication

SSR

• Source: The sender, speaker, or writer.
• Symbols: The words or gestures used.
• Receiver: The listener or reader.

Characteristics of Effective Communicators

Effectiveness communicators:

• Select symbols that are meaningful to the receiver.
• Display a positive attitude when delivering the message.
• Use accurate, up-to-date, and stimulating material.

Characteristics of Receivers

Three characteristics of receivers need to be understood:

• Their viewpoint and background
• Their willingness to listen or learn
• Their past experiences and motivations

Barriers to Effective Communication

COIL

Confusion Between the Symbol and Symbolized Object: Words and symbols do not always represent the same thing to every person. Some words may transfer with their intended meaning.

Overuse of Abstractions: Abstract words may not evoke items in the listener’s mind that the communicator intends. Concrete (specific) words should be used.

Interference (External Factors): A breakdown in the communication cycle.

Types of interference:

• Physiological (e.g., hearing loss, injury, or physical illness)
• Environmental (e.g., unfamiliar noises, vibrations, or smells)
• Psychological (e.g., feelings of mistrust or a lack of commitment to the communication process)

Lack of Common Experience: The greatest barrier to communication. Instructors cannot use the same dialogue with pilots of different experience levels.

Developing Communication Skills

LIQIR

Listening is more than hearing. Hearing is a passive but constant process. Listening is an active process (hearing with comprehension).

Effective listeners:

• Take notes.
• Maintain eye contact.
• Listen for the main ideas.
• Guard against daydreaming.
• Listen to understand rather than refute.

Instructional communication is used to inform the listeners in the teaching-learning process. It requires the instructor to be knowledgeable and confident.

Instructors perform better when speaking of something they know very well. Examples of past experiences should be shared to illustrate particular points.

Questioning can determine how well the learner understands what is being taught. It also shows the learner that the instructor is paying attention and is interested in the response.

An instructor should ask open-ended questions (“why” or “how”) and avoid closed-ended questions (“yes” or “no”).

Instructional enhancement states that the more knowledgeable the instructor is, the more confident, engaging, and productive he or she will be at conveying it.

Professional development opportunities for aviation instructors include seminars, professional organizations, and online courses.

Role-playing can give Instructor applicants experience in instructional communication. The instructor applicant takes the role of the instructor and is responsible for teaching his or her colleagues as if they were learners.

Essential Teaching Skills

PAMS

• People Skills: Communicate clearly, motivate learners, and adapt to their needs.
• Assessment Skills: Provide guidance, suggestions for improvement, and positive reinforcement.
• Management Skills: Plan, organize, lead, and supervise.
• Subject Matter Expertise (SME): Have expertise in aviation and teaching.

Preparation of a Lesson

1. Establish the training objectives.
2. Organize the material into a logical sequence.
3. Determine if instructional aids should be used.
4. Develop learning activities.
5. Plan an assessment method.
6. Create a realistic timeline.
7. Plan for lesson closure.

Types of Training Objectives

• Performance-Based: Describe precisely what needs to be done and how it is done.
• Decision-Based: Promote critical thinking skills (e.g., risk management).

Performance-based objectives consist of:

• Description: An explanation of the skill or behavior to be learned.
• Conditions: The rules (e.g., “using no more than 5° of bank”).
• Criteria: The standards (e.g., “within ±100′”).

Organization of Material

Introduction

• Attention: Grabs attention (e.g., a story).
• Motivation: Provokes a desire to learn.
• Overview: A glimpse of what is to be covered.

Development

Main points should be organized:

• From the past to the present.
• From the simple to the complex.
• From the known to the unknown.
• From the most frequently used to the least frequently used.

Conclusion

The conclusion reviews the main points and relates them to the objectives. It also links the knowledge gained to future lessons.

Steps in the Teaching Process

P-PAR

1. Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Application
4. Review and Assessment

Training Delivery Methods

• Lecture:
  • Illustrated Talk
  • Briefing
  • Formal Lecture
  • Informal Lecture
  • Teaching Lecture
• Discussion:
  • Guided Discussion
• Electronic Learning:
  • Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL)
  • Simulation or Role-Playing
• Cooperative or Group Learning
• Demonstration-Performance
• Drill and Practice

Types of Guided Discussion Questions

• Lead-Off: Opens up the discussion. They usually begin with “how” or “why.”
• Follow-up: Asked to further guide the discussion further.
• Overhead: Directed to the entire group.
• Rhetorical: Spurs thought, but the instructor provides the answer.
• Direct: Asked to a specific individual.
• Reverse: The instructor redirects a learner’s question to another learner.
• Relay: A reverse question that is redirected to the group instead of an individual.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

PBL is a teaching strategy that confronts learners with problems that are encountered in real life.

Types of PBL:

• Scenario-Based Training (SBT)
• Collaborative Problem-Solving
• Case Studies

Guidelines for Using Instructional Aids

1. Establish the learning objectives.
2. Research the subject and gather supporting materials.
3. Organize the material into a logical learning sequence.
4. Determine what ideas should be supported with instruction aids.

Types of Assessments

• Traditional (written) or Authentic (scenario-based)
• Formal (documented) or Informal (casual)
• Formative (ungraded review) or Summative (periodic measurements of course progress)
• Norm-Referenced (performance is compared against other learners) or Criterion-Referenced (performance is compared to an established standard)

Purpose of an Assessment

A proper assessment:

• Contributes to learning.
• Reveals the quality of instruction.
• Highlights strong and weak areas.
• Indicates if the learning objectives were met.

Characteristics of an Effective Assessment

FAST COCO

• Flexible: Fits the learner and the occasion.
• Acceptable: The learner must first accept the instructor to accept the critique.
• Specific: Guidance should be clear and concise.
• Thoughtful: It should not ridicule or anger the learner.
• Comprehensive: Covers both strengths and weaknesses.
• Objective: Does not reflect the instructor’s opinions or preferences.
• Constructive: Benefits the learner.
• Organized: Logical and makes sense to the learner.

Traditional Assessment

Traditional assessments:

• Generally refer to written tests.
• Evaluate rote and understanding levels of learning.
• Are instructor-centered.
• Use a traditional grading system (e.g., “95%”).

Characteristics of a Good Written Test

DR COVU

• Discrimination: Small differences can be measured between learners or the course objectives.
• Reliability: Yields consistent results.
• Comprehensiveness: Samples a good cross-section of all the knowledge being measured.
• Objectivity: Can be graded consistently.
• Validity: Measures the achievement of lesson objectives and nothing else.
• Usability: Easy to give, read, and grade.

How to Choose an Assessment Method

1. Determine Level-of-Learning Objectives
2. List Indicators/Samples of Desired Behaviors
3. Establish Criterion (Performance-Based) Objectives
4. Develop Criterion-Referenced Assessment Items

Authentic Assessment

Authentic assessments:

• Focus on real-world tasks in “authentic” settings.
• Evaluate the application and correlation levels of learning.
• Are learner-centered, focusing on learning more than grading.
• Use a rubric with defined levels for grading (e.g., describe, explain, practice, perform).

The collaborative assessment is an example of an authentic assessment method. It is used during post-flight debriefings and consists of four steps: replay, reconstruct, reflect, and redirect.

Types of Critiques

• Instructor/Learner: A joint or group discussion.
• Instructor-Led: An instructor critiques a learner’s performance.
• Learner-Led: The learner leads the assessment.
• Small-Group: Small groups analyze information and then present their findings to the class.
• Critique by Another Learner: The instructor requires another learner to present a critique.
• Self: A learner critiques a personal performance.
• Written: Notes help the instructor recall details of the lesson, and the learner can get a copy to refer to later.

Types of Oral Questions

Objective: Have only one correct answer (e.g., who, what, when, or where).

Open-Ended: Statements that implicitly ask for completion (e.g., why or how).

Characteristics of Effective Questions

• Center on one idea.
• Present a challenge.
• Apply to the subject of instruction.
• Are brief and concise, but also clear.
• Are adapted to the learner’s abilities and experiences.

Types of Questions to Avoid

• “Yes” or “No”: Questions that require a short answer.
• Toss-Up: Questions with two viable options.
• Puzzling: Questions with many parts (puzzle pieces) that must be assembled before they can be understood.
• Oversize: Questions that are too broad.
• Bewildering: Questions that are hard to read or understand.
• Trick: Questions that are designed to be misleading.
• Irrelevant: Questions that are unrelated to the learning objective.

Course of Training

Building Block Concept

The building-block concept means that new learning is based on existing knowledge and experience. Learners progressively combine, or “stack,” new knowledge and skills.

The building-block concept can be implemented in three steps:

1. Determine the training objectives.
2. Identify blocks of learning within the training objectives.
3. Arrange the blocks of learning in a logical sequence.

Purpose of a Training Syllabus

A training syllabus can:

• Ensure that training is accomplished in a logical sequence.
• Act as a checklist to ensure that the required training has been completed.
• Help in the development of lesson plans.

Purpose of a Lesson Plan

A lesson plan can:

• Keep the instructor on track.
• Give inexperienced instructors confidence.
• Ensure that important points are not overlooked.
• Organize content in an efficient learning sequence.
• Promote consistent instruction.
• Be useful for recordkeeping.

Characteristics of a Well-Planned Lesson

FIRCUPS

• Flexibility: Adaptable.
• Instructional Steps: Fits the four steps of the teaching process.
• Relation to Course of Training: Clearly reflects the overall training goals.
• Content: Contains new material and a review.
• Unity: Has a limited number of connected objectives.
• Practicality: Planned for the situation.
• Scope: Covers the right amount of material.

Scenario-Based Lesson Plans

A good scenario:

• Has a clear set of objectives.
• Appeals to the learner (it involves something the learner would do when training is complete).
• Incorporates as many training tasks as possible.
• Has more than one correct answer.
• Does not have an obvious solution.
• Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment.
• Requires the learner to make decisions.

To be realistic, a flight scenario must have:

• A purpose (reason to go).
• Consequences if the mission is not completed.

Scenario Development Steps

1. Identify the learning objectives (preferably decision-based).
2. Decide on a format (ground or flight).
3. Devise a situation (a script) that leads to the desired learning outcomes.
4. Incorporate as many training tasks as possible.
5. Incorporate a problem that the learner will need to resolve.
6. Identify the trigger event (beginning of the scenario).
7. Plan transitions between the scenario and traditional learning and vice-versa.
8. Identify decision points and key areas for feedback and learner reflection.
9. Identify positive and negative outcomes (success and failure).

Responsibilities of All Aviation Instructors

• Helping Learners Learn:
  • Make Learning Enjoyable
  • Make Learning Beneficial
  • Make Learning Interesting
  • Set Measurable Standards
• Providing Adequate Instruction:
  • Tailored Instruction
  • Slow and Fast Learners
  • Awareness of Errors
  • Instructor Development
• Demanding Standards of Performance:
  • Minimal Testing Standards
  • Striving for Excellence
• Emphasizing the Positive:
  • Instructor’s Influence
  • Make First Lessons Enjoyable
  • Introduce Emergency Procedures with Care
  • Be Flexible with Instructional Methods
• Minimizing Learner Frustrations:
  • Motivate Learners
  • Keep Learners Informed
  • Approach Learners as Individuals
  • Give Credit when Due
  • Criticize Constructively
  • Be Consistent
  • Admit Errors
• Ensuring Aviation Safety:
  • Role-Models

Responsibilities of Flight Instructors

• Physiological Obstacles for Flight Learners:
  • Unfamiliar Environments and Sensations
  • Motion Sickness
• Ensuring Learner Skill Set:
  • Skill Requirements for Solo Flight
  • Limitations on Instructors Authorizing Solo Flight
  • Presolo Written Exams
  • Limitations on Solo Flight Privileges
• Endorsements and Recommendations:
  • Knowledge Tests
  • Practical Test Recommendations
  • Retesting After Failure
  • Endorsements
• Evaluation of Learner Piloting Ability:
  • Demonstrated Ability
  • Keep Learners Informed
• Emphasizing Safety of Flight Practices:
  • See and Avoid Responsibility
  • Proper Checklist Usage

Professionalism

Professionalism:

• Is an attitude.
• Exists only when a service is performed.
• Is based on study and research.
• Demands a code of conduct/ethics.
• Is achieved only after extended training and preparation.
• Requires the ability to make good judgment decisions and reason logically.

Characteristics of Professional Instructors

• Sincerity (Genuineness)
• Acceptance (Warmth)
• Personal Appearance (“Dress for Success”)
• Personal Habits (Tendencies)
• Demeanor (Outward Behaviors)
• Proper Language (No Profanity)

Aviation Instructor’s Code of Conduct

• Make safety the number one priority.
• Develop and exercise good judgment.
• Recognize and manage risk effectively.
• Be accountable for his or her actions.
• Act with responsibility and courtesy.
• Adhere to prudent operating practices.
• Adhere to applicable laws and regulations.

Professional Development

• Continuing Education: Seminars, workshops, and the WINGS program.
• Reflective Teaching: Self-critiquing teaching practices to increase their effectiveness.
• Library: Current procedures and publications.
• Additional Ratings: Additional category and class ratings or the Gold Seal Flight Instructor Certificate.
• Industry Organizations: Those that provide education, training, or networking opportunities.

Demonstration-Performance Steps

1. Instructor Explanations
2. Instructor Demonstrations
3. Learner Performance and Instructor Supervision
4. Instructor Evaluation

Telling-and-Doing Technique Steps

1. Preparation (Instructor Explanations)
2. Instructor Tells–Instructor Does
3. Learner Tells–Instructor Does
4. Learner Tells–Learner Does
5. Learner Does–Instructor Evaluates

The main difference between the demonstration-performance method and the telling-and-doing technique is step three (learner tells–instructor does).

Positive Exchange of Controls Steps

1. “You have the flight controls.”
2. “I have the flight controls.”
3. “You have the flight controls.”

Sterile Cockpit Rule

The sterile cockpit rule (14 CFR 121.542) requires air carrier pilots to refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight.

GA pilots can adopt the rule for safety. Critical phases of flight for light aircraft can be defined as 2,500′ AGL or at any altitude within 10 minutes of landing.

Use of Distractions

To provide training for inflight distractions, instructors can:

• Discuss a topic unrelated to the flight that the learner enjoys.
• Ask the learner to obtain an inflight weather update through onboard electronics.
• Ask the learner to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
• Ask the learner to identify a field suitable for a forced landing.

Distractions should not be used during the initial stages of learning a new skill.

Integrated Flight Instruction

Integrated flight instruction occurs when learners are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by outside (visual) and inside (instrument) references from the first time each maneuver is introduced.

“See and Avoid” Responsibilities

At least 90% of the pilot’s attention should be devoted to outside visual references and traffic scanning.

Assessment of Piloting Ability

Assessment determines how well a learner is progressing. A well-designed assessment provides a learner with something constructive upon which he or she can work or build.

First Solo Flight

To endorse a student for solo flight, the instructor must determine that the learner is qualified and proficient in all maneuvers and procedures required by 14 CFR 61.87. The instructor bases this assessment on the learner’s ability to demonstrate consistent proficiency in the flight maneuvers.

Demonstrated Ability

The assessment of aeronautical skills is based on established performance standards, suitably modified to fit the learner’s experience level and stage of training.

Correction of Learner Errors

Correction of learner errors does not include the practice of taking over from learners immediately when a mistake is made. When safety permits, it is better to let learners progress part of the way into the mistake and find a way out.

Keeping Learners Informed

Flight instructors should keep learners informed of their progress. This may be done as each procedure or maneuver is completed or summarized during postflight critiques.

Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM)

ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

Methods of Decision-Making

Analytical: Requires time to evaluate options. The DECIDE model is one method.

Automatic (Naturalistic): Requires a quick decision at the cost of accuracy. It is typically used during emergencies.

The Decision-Making Process

1. Define the problem.
2. Choose a course of action.
3. Implement the decision and evaluate the outcome.

Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes

• Anti-Authority: “Follow the rules. They are usually right.”
• Impulsivity: “Not so fast, think first.”
• Invulnerability: “It could happen to me.”
• Macho: “Taking chances is foolish.”
• Resignation: “I’m not helpless. I can make a difference.”